Teaching Hydraulic Technology with the ST280 Hydraulics Module from LJ Create

Free Resume Examples and Cover Letter Samples

Resume writing is about projecting your positives in a convincing manner to the prospective employer. He should be convinced that you are the perfect candidate for the position. Along with resume writing tips you need to look at some sample resumes to get an idea of how you should design and write your resume.

Sample resume of an Event Manager:

Catherine Lowell

Event Manager

315, Baker Street,

London

+44 1865 270011

catherinelo@gmail.com

Profile

Senior Event Manager with varied experience in planning, coordinating and monitoring large shows, events and conferences. Expertise in each area of event management from sales to execution coupled with an ability to lead and motivate the team to perform and achieve budget surplus.

Objective:

Incorporating my experience in global marketing and event coordination that span over 10 years to lead the team and achieve the revenue target. Plan, execute and manage corporate events in Asia, Latin America and Europe.

Professional experience

Exhibition Center

Boston

Senior Event Manager

2005- Present

• · Primary operations manager responsible of planning and supporting services for 25-36 shows annually
• · Served as a contact point between show managers, exhibitors and contractors
• · Preparing a time line for the entire event and delegating to the team
• · Conducting weekly operation meetings with contractors, clients and the team
• · Monitoring the event venue activities
• · Tracking all expenses

Starwood Hotels

Framingham

2003-2005

Catering Sales Manger

• Managed meetings, conferences, and social events form idea generation to the completion.
• Managed site visits and client presentations
• Coordinated floor plans, audio visual amenities, and menus
• Providing suggestions to add value to events and enhancing overall client satisfactions

Computer Experience

Systems:

Windows (NT, 2000, XP, Vista); Macintosh (OS 7.x, 8.x, 9.x, 10)

Software:

Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Project, Visio); EventPro; FilemakerPro; Adobe (Photoshop, PageMaker); Meeting Matrix; Delphi MPE; Quicken; Peachtree;

EduSimmons College

Bachelors of Arts in Psychology and Political Science- 2002

Boston, MA

Oxford University

Study Abroad Program –Oxford, England, 2001

Writing a cover letter is as vital as writing a resume, since it gives the basic idea of your background to the employer.

Sample of a cover letter:

Contact details

Date

Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name:

I wish to apply for the post of Event Manager advertised in the XYZ. Please find encl. attach. of my resume for your kind perusal.

I hold a bachelor’s degree in Psychology and Political Science backed with 7 years of experience in Event Management. My expertise lies in initializing concepts, concept generation, planning, executing, monitoring and analyzing the events. I lead and train the team to achieve the set targets.

I appreciate your taking time to review my experience and other details.

Thank you,

Your name and signature

About the Author

I am good resume writer. I am professional in sales associate resume writing. I have written various types of office assistant resume. In that I focus on almost all fields such as accounting, arts, clerks, and many more.

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Pay The Price – Motivational Cartoon Video

Get Some Daily Motivation And Inspiration!

Maybe you need to find a better job, develop more confidence, or go back to school, and you need some inspiration. Perhaps you need motivation to keep visiting the gym, or to work at a sales opportunity, even your own home based business. Quotes and words of wisdom, can sometimes help you in many ways, and the more you fill your mind with these positive thoughts the better off you will be.

There are some awesome self-help authors out there, with some really fantastic books, and it is a great idea to read at least a few pages of these books, every single day. It is also great to read a daily source of inspiring words, such as a daily e-mail message, or a “thought for the day” calendar, and things of that nature.

You can do anything you want if you really put your mind to it, and don’t let anyone tell you that you cannot! Fill yourself up with positive words, and avoid the negative people that are around. Surround yourself with other positive people who are doing something with their lives. The grown men who sit home reading comic books, playing video games, and watching cartoons are going nowhere with their lives…guaranteed! Avoid these people like the plague! I was forced to write off a buddy of mine after 25 years of friendship because he became an energy vampire, practically draining people of their positive energy!

“Self-trust is the first secret of success.”  – Ralph Waldo Emerson

“They are able because they think they are able.”  – Virgil

“If we only knew the real value of a day.”  – Joseph Farrell

Life is too short to sit around broke, bored, or sad…get up and get out there and start living your life! If you need more money, then start earning more money, so that you can enjoy your life more!

My name is Father Time, and I write a daily motivational e-mail message, which can be seen by clicking here. I am willing to give YOU a free subscription, so hurry and sign up, and tell a friend, please! 

You can do whatever you want with the remainder of your life…so get going!

Many Blessings! 

About the Author

Father Time has been a published writer for over 33 years. He has a fabulous Online SuperStore featuring many unique and interesting items, including Good Luck Amulets, Psychic Readings via e-mail, Indian Medicine Bags, and other Mystical Items and Good Luck Attracting Jewelry!

Father’s website is www.FatherTimePublishing.com where he also offers an Awesome Daily Motivational e-mail Service!

How to be motivated to draw good back rounds ?

I love drawing things like people are animals, and I’m pretty good it, but I need to work on drawing back rounds like objects, landscapes,and buildings but I just can’t seem to find the motivation. When I try drawing a full background I get bored,tired, and give up, and work more on animals and people.But if I ever want to become a good comic book, or cartoon artist I’ll have to learn to be well rounded, so any tips ?

Well in a sense you have your motivation. Trust me as a comic artist your backgrounds or setting must be as interesting as your focal figures. You must stop thinking of the backgrounds as a field for the object of interest to exist in but as an extension of the emotion you as the artist are trying to convey. I think great inspiration comes from looking at great work. Look at an artist like Brian Froud to see how he makes every inch of his pieces dynamic. Or the work of Boris Vallejo! The Pre- Raphaelite movement!
To learn more techniques I would suggest going to smart flix and renting everything you can. They have hundreds of how to video’s and frankly there is always more to know. If you want to be a giant in your field you will need giant skills. Be a Bad A&&! Remember if all the worlds a stage then you want the best stage to play out your scene!
Something I know many working artists try and make time to do is Plien air painting. Are the shadows hot or cool. See the reflected light? Trust me you will never stop learning to see more. Just remember this is your craft! I hope this is a good starting place. You will love smartflix!

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Great Attitudes!: 10 Choices for Success in Life $6.20 Falling into that irresistible category of self-help, motivation, and success, this visually engaging gift book offers ten important choices for a successful life. Chapters include, “Choose a Positive Attitude,” “Choose an Attitude of Fortitude,” and “Choose an Attitude of Courage.” Insight from the warm and humorous writings of Charles Swindoll provides welcome information about this popular subj…

Life is Attitude, Dude! Funny song by Motivational Speaker Billy Riggs

Motivation Posters and Their Awesome Effects

Motivation posters are cute little printed pictures that work towards motivating you as soon as you see them. These days, you will find all kinds of motivation posters available widely at almost all possible places. All you require to do is to get them, stick them and look at them several times a day, in order to motivate yourself.

Motivation posters work great to inspire you to accomplish your task and reach your target. You won’t believe but it’s true that the driving force to most people across the globe who have been successful in their respective field was motivation. Yes! Motivation is required to take an individual to places.

Remember that words and visual objects can be extremely powerful in influencing your life. In fact, there are many areas, in life where one looks for motivation. Be it love, career, academics, relationships, sales, business or more coming out of trouble. One requires some amount of motivation to make things work.

Motivational posters will do a lot good to you when it comes to inspiring you for a special purpose or just making your day! Motivational posters often consist of a three-part template such as the following:

a) A Photograph

This is often stock photography centered in a rectangular frame.

b) A Title

The poster will have a title such as ‘success’, ‘fame’ or ‘courage’ in large and attractive

c) A Description

The description of a motivational quote is usually in smaller text. It is displayed beneath the title.

You can keep motivational poster in your office and home. This will create a positive impact in your attitude and behavior. In office you will feel more charged up and get motivated to keep up the good work.

At home these posters will create a positive ambience. It will add to the liveliness of your doctor and keep you inspired to do what you want.

Another important thing to take care is to consider certain things when purchasing motivation posters. Here are tips to follow when purchasing motivation posters via the World Wide Web.

a) Make sure that the website is offering quality stuff.

b) Compare the prices and sizes of poster on different websites prior to setting on one.

c) Read through the sample of quotes and make sure that these really motivate and inspire you to achieve what you want in life.

d) Make sure that the website is authorized to sell motivation posters.

You can have more than one Motivation Poster in your room. In fact, you can have as many as you want. The artwork and quotes on the poster will definitely influence you and your mood deeply.

You should find a motivational poster that serves as an office décor. Try not to embellish your wall with bare poster.

You can terminate your artwork or even frame it for an added effect. The placement of the artwork should be strategic.

In a nut shell, motivation posters would do a great lot to help you get inspired. Stick them around you and notices the difference in some time.

About the Author

For more Articles, News, Information, Advice, and Resources about Motivation and Self Help please visit GET AND STAY MOTIVATED and MOTIVATION TIPS and MEDITATION ADVICE

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Prosper Me! Motivational CD Volume#

10 Ways to Motivate Yourself

Wish we could all stay motivated forever – but we all know that that is not possible. There are however steps you can take to get yourself back into groove sooner rather than staying low for long periods of time. Here are my top ten ways to get yourself motivated:

1. Motivation Books: This is my number one tip. Books written by experts are full of tips and strategies to motivate you. True motivational stories are inspirational.

2. Motivational Music: Music can always do wonders to your mood – Buy good motivating CDs, MP3s or download from iTunes. You can just let It play in the background and continue doing your work. I like to listen to positive music – irrespective of whether or not I need a dose of motivation.

3. Audio Books: These again can be played in the background – does not require too much of your involvement (like books). Listening to interview podcasts with successful people is another effective method.

4. Take a Walk: Sometimes just getting away from you work and taking a walk can be very effective. It refreshes your mind and helps you get clarity on issues at hand.

5. Motivational Quotes: Just a few well written quotes can do wonders to your mood. This is why desktop calendars with good quotes are so popular. Reading a quote at the start of the day can help you start your day on a positive note.

6. Past Successes: Remember your past successes. Remind yourself how you worked through the obstacles and achieved your goal at the end. This can be quite uplifting.

7. Become Picky: Be very picky about the type of news you consume (in the media). Too much television or too much depressing news can have negative effect.

8. Break Up Your Goal: Break your goal into simple actionable steps. Do a few easy ones first. Once you can actually see what it will take to get your goal, things will seem far more attainable.

9. Deadline: Set yourself a deadline – share with others that you plan to finish something before a certain day.

10. End Result: Spend some time thinking and listing down all that you will gain by moving ahead on a project – at the same time also list down what you will lose by working on a project. Sometimes just seeing it all paper can work miracles on your mind.

About the Author

The author, James W Terry, is passionate about helping people reach their goals. James believes that reading Motivation Books is one of the primary ways in which you can stay motivated for all round success. Check out his website for resources on Motivation. On his website, he presents to you some of the most powerful and inspirational Motivational Books ever written.

Motivational Songs for a CD?

I’m making a CD for my math class, and my teacher wants songs that’ll motivate, inspire, and pump up the spirits of us students. What songs do you recommend?
also, they have to clean (no cussing)
*to BE clean

stronger–kayne West
right round–flo rida
magic–the pilots
im yours–jason mraz
here comes the sun–beatles
untouched–the veronicas

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Safe Trauma Recovery

Healing and Self Help vis-à-vis Technology

All of you must have already heard of scenar technology that helps you to extricate ever lasting pain those years of doctors and treatment with a lot of medicines did not provide. As for this technology, you may find DiaDENS and the DENAS device when placed on the areas of pain provide a healing therapy by giving out electric impulses which penetrate the skin and give you some relaxation out of the mind numbing pain.

Joint aches, accidental pains, sudden shocks that cause pain or muscle pull, the scenar which stands for Self Controlled Energy Neuro Adaptive Regulator, invented by a Russian named Alexander Karasev, and also cosmodic healing technologies which enable various degenerated functions of the body come to its normal being, in due course of time.

If you have been suffering from such ailments for a long time and do not know how to use or how to seek help regarding such discrepancy you can choose to learn about it online. There are websites which dedicate a lot of notes and tips on recovery using such electric technology.

Online help

What more can it be if you get all the necessary details in sites which offer services and devices suited for your requirement that assures therapy via healing from within. Sure there are a lot many ways to get your scenar device but this is for your knowledge that can you can adhere to means of acquiring it.

Apart from that, you can also get your device online after having read about it in details, like cosmodic devices help in regeneration too, not only does it help enhancing the body’s mechanism to heal itself, but also accelerates the regenerating process.

This process of stimulating the neuropeptides present in the affected area of the body, which conduces pain as the cells have been hampered, is your cure, and online help can come in very handy because the details of such devices, their usage, their effects, purpose everything is stated.

It is recommended for you to read up a few articles on such home based self help feasible means of healing treatments which not only provides you some respite but is also very active.

Pain often is like a blister that darkens one’s entire life, and before you fall into the clasps of disappointment and irrevocable pain, you should refer to online guides in websites that offer such services. If you want to learn more about this technology, there are supports and training programs as well.

With such online guidance, you can avail such 21st century healing devices, which also incur low level laser that gives you no pain in the process of treatment and functions on the basis of light.

Through this ray of light, which penetrates in the affected area, healing begins and is also reported to have no side effects. In the era of booming technology, regeneration, wiping out body pain, growth of immunity minus side effects should not be aloof of you, it’s worth a try.

About the Author

It’s only at 21stcenturydoc.com, where you’ll learn about the FUSION TOOLS which help you to understand the irresistible combination of “business = pleasure”. Visit our site to experience the It’s only at healing miracle.

Best Website To Self-Publish / Print A Book?

Hey guys,

I’ve self published, but if money is an issue, self publishing is not the cheap way to go for a novel, especially if you don’t have publishing skills. If you can’t do the layout yourself, then you need to hire someone to do it, likely a vanity-press and pay their vanity package fee which is going to be at least a few hundred pounds, maybe a thousand. Then when you get the books, you need to market them. Niche self published books can sometimes be marketed directly to the audience inexpensively, but that is not the case with novels. Having your book on Amazon is a way for people to buy it, but it does not constitute marketing. There are many, many self published books on Amazon that have never sold a single copy. For people to buy your book, they need to know about it and unless you have a small, defined target audience that marketing is going to cost you a lot of money.

If it’s a novel with potential, you are not limited to the smaller sales volume many niche books are. Why not have a traditional publishing company publish it, risk none of your own money and get royalties.

If you still really want to self publish, one place I’d look is createspace since they are owned by Amazon which is very much tied to the kindle books. I’m not sure if they have a U.K. printer or not.

Inspiring Motivational Message

The Five Steps of Creating Your Vision Board

A vision board is typically a collage of images or words that you’ve assembled representing your deepest goals, dreams and desires. The idea behind this is that when you surround yourself with images of who you want to become, what you want to have, where you want to live, or where you want to vacation, your life changes to match those images and those desires.

Bob Proctor from the movie ‘The Secret’ explains that “Everything that’s coming into your life you are attracting into your life. And it’s attracted by virtue of the images you’re holding in your mind. It’s what you’re thinking. Whatever is going on in your mind you are attracting to you.”

The utilization of a Vision Board is so effective, because it guides the images you are holding in your mind! You see, your mind works like a magnet; that which you focus your mind on grows and manifests into your life in the form of events, people or circumstances that will assist you in reaching your goals.

More…”For as a man thinketh in his heart, so is he” – Proverbs 23:7.

The human brain receives thousands of pieces of information a second, flooding in from the senses. It is said that we have daily some 60,000 thoughts and many of those are the same we had yesterday. So by having a vision board we can begin to determine the thoughts we want to focus our lives on and manifest into our lives.

This process works by way of what is called the Reticular Activating System. The Reticular Activating System filters through all these pieces of input and decides which messages receive top priority and full attention.

When setting personal goals, especially after committing them to writing, the brain has a specific subject or task brought to the forefront.

So if you then repeatedly think about, and re-write the goals, the brain is focused and suddenly becomes aware of related matters and needed resources which are important in the realization of the goal.

Anthony Robbins in his book ‘Awaken the Giant Within’ explains that “This shift in mental posture aligns you more precisely with your goals. Once you decide that something is a priority, you give it tremendous emotional intensity, and by continually focusing on it, any resource that supports its attainment will eventually become clear.”

Buddha taught about the Law of Attraction – “All that we are is the result of what we have thought. The mind is everything. What we think we become” Buddha 562-483 B.C.

Studies show that only 4% of the population set goals for themselves. So it’s little wonder that most people never really get to where they want to because they don’t have and clear picture of what it is they want.

The scary result of the consequences of not having a clear picture of where you want to go is illustrated by insurance industry statistics. Of 100 people who reach retirement age, only one will be wealthy. Four out of the hundred will be financially independent; fifteen will have some savings put aside. And the other 80 will be dependent on pensions, still working or broke – this after a lifetime of well-paid work in the most affluent society in human history.

“If you don’t design your own life plan, chances are you’ll fall into someone else’s plan. And guess what they have planned for you? Not much.” ~ Jim Rohn

If you want to not be one of the eighty who is average then here are some simple steps to Creating a Vision Board:

Step 1: Set aside some quiet time with a pen and a notebook so that you can write down all the goals, experiences, dreams, and things you want to own in your life. This will form the basis of your dream board. Once you have an idea of what you want in your dream board you need to go and find the pictures to represent them. Common places to look are magazine, advertising material and the internet. Have fun compiling the pictures and phrases that inspire you.

Step 2: Go through the images you’ve collected and sort them out according to the ones that most inspire and motivate you. Obviously you would also want the vision board to represent some of your most important goals or ones that you most want to accomplish in the short term, mixed in with longer term goals and dreams. You want to start to lay them out on the piece of card board and see how it looks. There is no right or wrong way to sort out your vision board. Some people like to have a picture of themselves in the middle and their pictures scattered all around them. Others like to go with themes such as spiritual, financial etc placed in each corners of the board others just like to scatter the pictures on the board without any real theme.

Step 3: Glue everything onto the board. You don’t have to keep to only pictures, if you feel the need to add your own creativity to the board by writing on it, painting on it then go ahead. This is your vision board and you can do whatever you think is going to best motivate and inspire you.

Step 4: Now that you have completed your vision board you want to put it somewhere that you will see often. It will serve no real purpose if you need to go searching for it. Some useful places to put your vision board are your bedroom where you will see it morning and night, or the bathroom door. The most important thing to bear in mind is that it is somewhere you will see it often to remind you of your visions and goals for your life.

About the Author

For the young at heart, find inspiring and motivating articles for every aspect of your life. For more information visit: http://www.4evayoung.com

weight loss forum/message board support group?

I really wanna start losing weight and going for walks everyday. I was wondering if there are any free forum/message board support groups with people losing weight. I think it would be a great motivation to talk to people that are in the same situation as I am.

Small online Support Group

http://www.mydiettracking.com/msgboards/viewforum.php?f=14

Mormon Jesus: Building the Kingdom of God (Episode 1)

Your Call Center Agent Needs Motivation – It Is Easy!

The life of a call center agent can be challenging to handle the complex deadlines involved in the telemarketing processes. In such situation it is very common that an agent can become frustrated or might leave the job to escape the complex situation. In this aspect the role played by the team leaders can matter a lot to their overall performance. Motivating them at all the levels of Call Center Outsourcing operations can bring colorful results in the calling process and hence lead them to promote professional skills with better success rate.

Here are some of the tips and suggestions that can be used to motivate the calling agents:

Happy Environment – To establish a happy environment, everyone in the floor must have a joyful mood to work. This is possible only when there is a transparency amongst all the members of the team. The relationship of the team leader with the colleague should be like a friend not like a strict boss.

Add Color to Workstation – The ambiance of a workstation can greatly contribute to better results. Today, it is seen that people who work under positive influence tends to show productivity and creativity at the same time. Add motivational posters; provide new systems integrated with valuable resources, etc. to make their effort more fruitful. A clean environment also supports this cause to a certain limit.

Listen To Your Team – Listening is a very essential factor that allows the team leaders to sort out any problems faced by the calling agents. If you are a good listener, they would love to share their good and bad experiences which will allow you to know them better.

Eliminate the Problems - A team can always perform well when all the members are free from worries. To ensure this, it is recommended that the leader need to sort out the problems and discuss them precisely with each and every individuals. Once the problems are separated, emphasis can be laid upon resolving them or to eliminate them permanently.

Mandatory Review Sessions - Regular review sessions in regular intervals will allow the calling agents to overview their performance and find our better ways to improve them. In addition, this process also helps the team leader to examine the individual performance and suggest them necessary tips and suggestions for professional development.

Reward Always Help – Rewarding the deserving agent is always a best way to bring motivation amongst the other members as well. A direct financial reward or any gift, voucher, movie ticket, etc. can inspire them to show better performance in the following time. In addition, this method also proves strong to define their operational efficiency during any working situation.

The Call Center Outsourcing industry looks for players who have the potential to take control over the complex call center situations. Motivating people is a great skill and the quality of such personalities is always rewarded with a bright fortune and financial growth.

About the Author

Discover an entire new way to save your costs and resources while expanding your business with Call Center Operation and Ella Greens is in charge of development process there. An eminent name in Call Center Solutions and Call Center Outsourcing Services, you can be rest assured of high-quality world class customer care services.

Psychology Applied to Teaching $44.88 This market-leading text has received wide acclaim for providing an applied, practical, and student-oriented approach to educational psychology. Psychology Applied to Teaching takes complex psychological theories and demonstrates how they apply to the everyday experiences of in-service teachers. The Twelfth Edition combines fresh concepts and contemporary research with long-standing theory and app…

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StartBoostingConfidence PPT Video Presentation

What is E-learning

E-learning comprises all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching. The information and communication systems , whether networked or not, serve as specific media to implement the learning process. The term will still most likely be utilized to reference out-of-classroom and in-classroom educational experiences via technology, even as advances continue in regard to devices and curriculum.

E-learning is essentially the computer and network-enabled transfer of skills and knowledge. E-learning applications and processes include Web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual classroom opportunities and digital collaboration. Content is delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio or video tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM. It can be self-paced or instructor-led and includes media in the form of text, image, animation, streaming video and audio.

Abbreviations like CBT (Computer-Based Training), IBT (Internet-Based Training) or WBT (Web-Based Training) have been used as synonyms to e-learning. Today one can still find these terms being used, along with variations of e-learning such as e-learning, E-learning, and eLearning. The terms will be utilized throughout this article to indicate their validity under the broader terminology of E-learning.

Market

The worldwide e-learning industry is estimated to be worth over $48 billion according to conservative estimates. Developments in internet and multimedia technologies are the basic enabler of e-learning, with consulting, content, technologies, services and support being identified as the five key sectors of the e-learning industry.

Higher education

By 2006, 3.5 million students were participating in on-line learning at institutions of higher education in the  According to the Sloan Foundation reports, there has been an increase of around 12–14 percent per year on average in enrollments for fully online learning over the five years 2004–2009 in the US post-secondary system, compared with an average of approximately 2 per cent increase per year in enrollments overall. Allen and Seamen (2009) claim that almost a quarter of all students in post-secondary education were taking fully online courses in 2008, and a report by Ambient Insight Research suggests that in 2009, 44 per cent of post-secondary students in the USA were taking some or all of their courses online, and projected that this figure would rise to 81 percent by 2014. Thus it can be seen that e-learning is moving rapidly from the margins to being a predominant form of post-secondary education, at least in the USA.

Many higher educations, for-profit institutions, now offer on-line classes. By contrast, only about half of private, for-profit   schools offer them. The Sloan report, based on a poll of academic leaders, indicated that students generally appear to be at least as satisfied with their on-line classes as they are with traditional ones. Private institutions may become more involved with on-line presentations as the cost of instituting such a system decreases. Properly trained staff must also be hired to work with students on-line. These staff members need to understand the content area, and also be highly trained in the use of the computer and Internet. Online education is rapidly increasing, and online doctoral education have even developed at leading research universities.

K-12 Learning

E-learning is also utilized by public K-12 schools in the United States. Some E-Learning environments take place in a traditional classroom; others allow students to attend classes from home or other locations. There are several states that are utilizing cyber and virtual school platforms for E-learning across the country that continued to increase. Public cyber schools enable students to log into synchronous or asynchronous courses anywhere there is an internet connection. Technology kits are usually provided that include computers, printers, and reimbursement for home internet use. Students are to use technology for school use only and must meet weekly work submission requirements. Teachers employed by K-12 online public cyber schools must be certified teachers in the state they are teaching in. Cyber schools allow for students to maintain their own pacing and progress, course selection, and provides the flexibility for students to create their own schedule.

History

In the early 1960s, Stanford university  psychology professors Patrick suppes  and Richard C.experimented with using computers to teach math and reading to young children in elementary school  in East Palo Alto, California. Stanford’s Education Program for Gifted Youth is descended from those early experiments.

Early e-learning systems, based on Computer-Based Learning/Training often attempted to replicate autocratic teaching styles whereby the role of the e-learning system was assumed to be for transferring knowledge, as opposed to systems developed later based on Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL), which encouraged the shared development of knowledge.

As early as 1993, William D. Graziadei described an online computer-delivered lecture, tutorial and assessment project using electronic mail. In 1997 he published an article which described developing an overall strategy for technology-based course development and management for an educational system. He said that products had to be easy to use and maintain, portable, replicable, scalable, and immediately affordable, and they had to have a high probability of success with long-term cost-effectiveness.

William D. Graziadei, Sharon Gallagher,Ronald N. Brown,Joseph Sasiadek Building Asynchronous and Synchronous Teaching-Learning Environments: Exploring a Course/Classroom Management SystemSolution   In 1997 Graziadei, W.D., et al., published an article entitled “Building Asynchronous and Synchronous Teaching-Learning Environments: Exploring a Course/Classroom Management System Solution”. They described a process at the State University of New York (SUNY) of evaluating products and developing an overall strategy for technology-based course development and management in teaching-learning. The product(s) had to be easy to use and maintain, portable, replicable, scalable, and immediately affordable, and they had to have a high probability of success with long-term cost-effectiveness. Today many technologies can be, and are, used in e-learning, from blogs to collaborative software, portfolios, and virtual classrooms. Most eLearning situations use combinations of these techniques.

E-Learning 2.0

The term E-Learning 2.0 is a neologism for CSCL systems that came about during the emergence of Web 2.0 From an E-Learning 2.0 perspective; conventional e-learning systems were based on instructional packets, which were delivered to students using assignments. Assignments were evaluated by the teacher. In contrast, the new e-learning places increased emphasis on social learning and use of social software such as blogs, wikis, podcasts and virtual worlds such as Second Life. This phenomenon has also been referred to as Long Tail Learning See also (Seely Brown & Adler 2008)

E-Learning 2.0, by contrast to e-learning systems not based on CSCL, assumes that knowledge (as meaning and understanding) is socially constructed. Learning takes place through conversations about content and grounded interaction about problems and actions. Advocates of social learning claim that one of the best ways to learn something is to teach it to others.

However, it should be noted that many early online courses, such as those developed by Murray Turoff and Starr Roxanne Hiltz in the 1970s and 80s at the New Jersey Institute of Technology, courses at the University of Guelph in Canada, the British Open University, and the online distance courses at the University of British Columbia (where Web CT, now incorporated into Blackboard Inc. was first developed), have always made heavy use of online discussion between students. Also, from the start, practitioners such as Harasim (1995) have put heavy emphasis on the use of learning networks for knowledge construction, long before the term e-learning, let alone e-learning 2.0, was even considered.

There is also an increased use of virtual classrooms (online presentations delivered live) as an online learning platform and classroom for a diverse set of education providers such as Minnesota State Colleges and Universities and Sachem School District.

In addition to virtual classroom environments, social networks have become an important part of E-learning 2.0. Social networks have been used to foster online learning communities around subjects as diverse as test preparation and language education. Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) is a term used to describe using handheld computers or cell phones to assist in language learning. Some feel, however, that schools have not caught up with the social networking trends. Few traditional educators promote social networking unless they are communicating with their own colleagues.

Approaches to e-learning services

E-learning services have evolved since computers were first used in education. There is a trend to move towards blended learning services, where computer-based activities are integrated with practical or classroom-based situations.

Bates and Poole (2003) and the OECD (2005) suggest that different types or forms of e-learning can be considered as a continuum, from no e-learning, i.e. no use of computers and/or the Internet for teaching and learning, through classroom aids, such as making classroom lecture PowerPoint slides available to students through a course web site or learning management system, to laptop programs, where students are required to bring laptops to class and use them as part of a face-to-face class, to hybrid learning, where classroom time is reduced but not eliminated, with more time devoted to online learning, through to fully online learning, which is a form of distance education. This classification is somewhat similar to that of the Sloan Commission reports on the status of e-learning, which refer to web enhanced, web supplemented and web dependent to reflect increasing intensity of technology use. In the Bates and Poole continuum, ‘blended learning’ can cover classroom aids, laptops and hybrid learning, while ‘distributed learning’ can incorporate either hybrid or fully online learning.

It can be seen then that e-learning can describe a wide range of applications, and it is often by no means clear even in peer reviewed research publications which form of e-learning is being discussed. However, Bates and Poole argue that when instructors say they are using e-learning, this most often refers to the use of technology as classroom aids, although over time, there has been a gradual increase in fully online learning (see Market above).

Computer-based learning

Computer-based learning, sometimes abbreviated to CBL, refers to the use of computers as a key component of the educational environment. While this can refer to the use of computers in a classroom, the term more broadly refers to a structured environment in which computers are used for teaching purposes.

Cassandra B. Whyte researched about the ever increasing role that computers would play in higher education. This evolution, to include computer-supported collaborative learning, in addition to data management, has been realized. The type of computers have changed over the years from cumbersome, slow devices taking up much space in the classroom, home, and office to laptops and handheld devices that are more portable in form and size and this minimalization of technology devices will continue.

Computer-based training

Computer-Based Trainings (CBTs) are self-paced learning activities accessible via a computer or handheld device. CBTs typically present content in a linear fashion, much like reading an online book or manual. For this reason they are often used to teach static processes, such as using software or completing mathematical equations. The term Computer-Based Training is often used interchangeably with Web-based training (WBT) with the primary difference being the delivery method. Where CBTs are typically delivered via CD-ROM, WBTs are delivered via the Internet using a web browser. Assessing learning in a CBT usually comes in the form of multiple choice questions, or other assessments that can be easily scored by a computer such as drag-and-drop, radial button, simulation or other interactive means. Assessments are easily scored and recorded via online software, providing immediate end-user feedback and completion status. Users are often able to print completion records in the form of certificates.

CBTs provide learning stimulus beyond traditional learning methodology from textbook, manual, or classroom-based instruction. For example, CBTs offer user-friendly solutions for satisfying continuing education requirements. Instead of limiting students to attending courses or reading printed manuals, students are able to acquire knowledge and skills through methods that are much more conducive to individual learning preferences. For example, CBTs offer visual learning benefits through animation or video, not typically offered by any other means.

CBTs can be a good alternative to printed learning materials since rich media, including videos or animations, can easily be embedded to enhance the learning. Another advantage to CBTs are that they can be easily distributed to a wide audience at a relatively low cost once the initial development is completed.

However, CBTs pose some learning challenges as well. Typically the creation of effective CBTs requires enormous resources. The software for developing CBTs (such as Flash or Adobe Director) is often more complex than a subject matter expert or teacher is able to use. In addition, the lack of human interaction can limit both the type of content that can be presented as well as the type of assessment that can be performed. Many learning organizations are beginning to use smaller CBT/WBT activities as part of a broader online learning program which may include online discussion or other interactive elements.

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL)

Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is one of the most promising innovations to improve teaching and learning with the help of modern information and communication technology. Most recent developments in CSCL have been called E-Learning 2.0, but the concept of collaborative or group learning whereby instructional methods are designed to encourage or require students to work together on learning tasks has existed much longer. It is widely agreed to distinguish collaborative learning from the traditional ‘direct transfer’ model in which the instructor is assumed to be the distributor of knowledge and skills, which is often given the neologism E-Learning 1.0, even though this direct transfer method most accurately reflects Computer-Based Learning systems (CBL).

In Datacloud: Toward a New Theory of Online Work, Johndan Johnson-Eilola describes a specific computer-supported collaboration space: The Smart Board. According to Johnson-Eilola, a “Smart Board system provides a 72-inch, rear projection, touchscreen, intelligent whiteboard surface for work” (79). In Datacloud, Johnson-Eilola asserts that “[w]e are attempting to understand how users move within information spaces, how users can exist within information spaces rather than merely gaze at them, and how information spaces must be shared with others rather than being private, lived within rather than simply visited” (82). He explains how the Smart Board system offers an information space that allows his students to engage in active collaboration. He makes three distinct claims regarding the functionality of the technology: 1) The Smart Board allows users to work with large amounts of information, 2) It offers an information space that invites active collaboration, 3) The work produced is often “dynamic and contingent” (82)

Johnson-Eilola further explains that with the Smart Board “…information work becom[es] a odied experience” (81). Users have the opportunity to engage with—inhabit—the technology by direct manipulation. Moreover, this space allows for more than one user; essentially, it invites multiple users.

When using smart boards information is able to be introduced to students in a new, fun, and engaging way. Teachers and/or students are able to draw on the board using different colors. This can help focus ones attention on particular areas of the screen. The marks made on the smart board are able to be erased. This makes it easy to show the information in its original form. When using smart boards teaching and learning become a more active experience for both the student and the teacher.

Locus of Control remains an important consideration in successful engagement of E-learners whether using the Smart Board or another E-learning modality. According to the work of Cassandra B. Whyte, the continuing attention to aspects of motivation and success in regard to E-learning should be kept in context and concert with other educational efforts. Information about motivational tendencies can help educators, psychologists, and technologists develop insights to help students perform better academically.

Technology-enhanced learning (TEL)

Main article: Technology-Enhanced LearningTechnology enhanced learning (TEL) has the goal to provide socio-technical innovations (also improving efficiency and cost effectiveness) for e-learning practices, regarding individuals and organizations, independent of time, place and pace. The field of TEL therefore applies to the support of any learning activity through technology.

Technology issues

Main article: Educational technology

Along with the terms learning technology, instructional technology, and Educational Technology, the term is generally used to refer to the use of technology in learning in a much broader sense than the computer-based training or Computer Aided Instruction of the 1980s. It is also broader than the terms Online Learning or Online Education which generally refer to purely web-based learning. In cases where mobile technologies are used, the term M-learning has become more common. E-learning, however, also has implications beyond just the technology and refers to the actual learning that takes place using these systems.

E-learning is naturally suited to distance learning and flexible learning, but can also be used in conjunction with face-to-face teaching, in which case the term Blended learning is commonly used. E-Learning pioneer Bernard Luskin argues that the “E” must be understood to have broad meaning if e-Learning is to be effective. Luskin says that the “e” should be interpreted to mean exciting, energetic, enthusiastic, emotional, extended, excellent, and educational in addition to “electronic” that is a traditional national interpretation. This broader interpretation allows for 21st century applications and brings learning and media psychology into the equation.

In higher education especially, the increasing tendency is to create a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) (which is sometimes combined with a Management Information System (MIS) to create a Managed Learning Environment) in which all aspects of a course are handled through a consistent user interface standard throughout the institution. A growing number of physical universities, as well as newer online-only colleges, have begun to offer a select set of academic degree and certificate programs via the Internet at a wide range of levels and in a wide range of disciplines. While some programs require students to attend some campus classes or orientations, many are delivered completely online. In addition, several universities offer online student support services, such as online advising and registration, e-counseling, online textbook purchase, student governments and student newspapers.

E-Learning can also refer to educational web sites such as those offering learning scenarios, worksheets and interactive exercises for children. The term is also used extensively in the business sector where it generally refers to cost-effective online training.

The recent trend in the E-Learning sector is screen casting. There are many screen casting tools available but the latest buzz is all about the web based screen casting tools which allow the users to create screencasts directly from their browser and make the video available online so that the viewers can stream the video directly. The advantage of such tools is that it gives the presenter the ability to show his ideas and flow of thoughts rather than simply explain them, which may be more confusing when delivered via simple text instructions. With the combination of video and audio, the expert can mimic the one on one experience of the classroom and deliver clear, complete instructions. From the learner’s point of view this provides the ability to pause and rewind and gives the learner the advantage of moving at their own pace, something a classroom cannot always offer.

Communication technologies used in E-learning

Communication technologies are generally categorized as asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous activities use technologies such as blogs, wikis, and discussion boards. The idea here is that participants may engage in the exchange of ideas or information without the dependency of other participants involvement at the same time. Electronic mail (Email) is also asynchronous in that mail can be sent or received without having both the participants’ involvement at the same time. Asynchronous learning also gives students the ability to work at their own pace. This is particularly beneficial for students who have health problems. They have the opportunity to complete their work in a low stress environment.

Synchronous activities involve the exchange of ideas and information with one or more participants during the same period of time. A face to face discussion is an example of synchronous communications. Synchronous activities occur with all participants joining in at once, as with an online chat session or a virtual classroom or meeting.

Virtual classrooms and meetings can often use a mix of communication technologies. Participants in a virtual classroom use icons called emoticons to communicate feelings and responses to questions or statements. Students are able to ‘write on the board’ and even share their desktop, when given rights by the teacher. Other communication technologies available in a virtual classroom include text notes, microphone rights, and breakout sessions. Breakout sessions allow the participants to work collaboratively in a small group setting to accomplish a task as well as allow the teacher to have private conversations with his or her students.

In asynchronous online courses, students proceed at their own page. If they need to listen to a lecture a second time, or think about a question for a while, they may do so without fearing that they will hold back the rest of the class. Through online courses, students can earn their diplomas more quickly, or repeat failed courses without the embarrassment of being in a class with younger students. Students also have access to an incredible variety of enrichment courses in online learning, and can participate in college courses, internships, sports, or work and still graduate with their class.

In many models, the writing community and the communication channels relate with the E-learning and the M-learning communities. Both the communities provide a general overview of the basic learning models and the activities required for the participants to join the learning sessions across the virtual classroom or even across standard classrooms enabled by technology. Many activities, essential for the learners in these environments, require frequent chat sessions in the form of virtual classrooms and/or blog meetings.

Learning management system (LMS) and Learning content management system (LCMS)

Main article: Learning management system

A learning management system (LMS) is software used for delivering, tracking and managing training/education. LMSs range from systems for managing training/educational records to software for distributing courses over the Internet and offering features for online collaboration.

A learning content management system (LCMS) is software for authoring, editing and indexing e-learning content (courses, reusable content objects). An LCMS may be solely dedicated to producing and publishing content that is hosted on an LMS, or it can host the content itself. The Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee (AICC) specification provides support for content that is hosted separately from the LMS.

A LMS allows for teachers and administrators to track attendance, time on task, and student progress. LMS also allows for not only teachers and administrators to track these variables but parents and students as well. Parents can log on to the LMS to track grades. Students log on to the LMS to submit homework and to access the course syllabus and lessons.

Computer-aided assessment

Computer-aided Assessment (also but less commonly referred to as E-assessment), ranging from automated multiple-choice tests to more sophisticated systems is becoming increasingly common. With some systems, feedback can be geared towards a student’s specific mistakes or the computer can navigate the student through a series of questions adapting to what the student appears to have learned or not learned.

The best examples follow a Formative Assessment structure and are called “Online Formative Assessment”. This involves making an initial formative assessment by sifting out the incorrect answers. The author/teacher will then explain what the pupil should have done with each question. It will then give the pupil at least one practice at each slight variation of sifted out questions. This is the formative learning stage. The next stage is to make a Summative Assessment by a new set of questions only covering the topics previously taught. Some will take this even further and repeat the cycle such as BOFA which is aimed at the Eleven plus examset in the UK.

The term learning design has sometimes come to refer to the type of activity enabled by software such as the open-source system LAMS which supports sequences of activities that can be both adaptive and collaborative. The IMS Learning Design specification is intended as a standard format for learning designs, and IMS LD Level A is supported in LAMS V2.elearning has been replacing the traditional settings due to its cost effectiveness.

Electronic performance support systems (EPSS)

Main article: Electronic performance support systems

Electronic performance support systems (EPSS) is a “computer-based system that improves worker productivity by providing on-the-job access to integrated information, advice, and learning experiences”. 1991, Barry Raybould

Content issues

Content is a core component of E-learning and includes issues such as pedagogy and learning object re-use.

Pedagogical elements

Pedagogical elements are an attempt to define structures or units of educational material. For example, this could be a lesson, an assignment, a multiple choice question, a quiz, a discussion group or a case study. These units should be format independent, so although it may be in any of the following methods, pedagogical structures would not include a textbook, a web page, a video conference or Podcast.

When beginning to create E-Learning content, the pedagogical approaches need to be evaluated. Simple pedagogical approaches make it easy to create content, but lack flexibility, richness and downstream functionality. On the other hand, complex pedagogical approaches can be difficult to set up and slow to develop, though they have the potential to provide more engaging learning experiences for students. Somewhere between these extremes is an ideal pedagogy that allows a particular educator to effectively create educational materials while simultaneously providing the most engaging educational experiences for students.

Pedagogical approaches or perspectives

• It is possible to use various pedagogical approaches for eLearning which include:
• Instruction  – the traditional pedagogy of instruction which is curriculum focused, and is developed by a centralized educating group or a single teacher.
• Cognitive perspective focuses on the cognitive processes involved in learning as well as how the brain works.
• Emotional perspective focuses on the emotional aspects of learning, like motivation, engagement, fun, etc.
• Behavioural perspective focuses on the skills and behavioural outcomes of the learning process. Role-playing and application to on-the-job settings.
• Contextual perspective focuses on the environmental and social aspects which can stimulate learning. Interaction with other people, collaborative discovery and the importance of peer support as well as pressure.
• Mode Neutral Convergence or promotion of ‘transmodal’ learning where online and classroom learners can coexist within one learning environment thus encouraging interconnectivity and the harnessing of collective intelligence.

• social-constructivist– this pedagogy is particularly well afforded by the use of discussion forums, blogs, wiki and on-line collaborative activities. It is a collaborative approach that opens educational content creation to a wider group including the students themselves. The One Laptop Per Child Foundationattempted to use a constructivist approach in its project
• Laurillard’s Conversational Model is also particularly relevant to eLearning, and Gilly Salmon’s Five-Stage Model is a pedagogical approach to the use of discussion boards.

Reusability, standards and learning objects

Much effort has been put into the technical reuse of electronically-based teaching materials and in particular creating or re-using Learning Objects. These are self contained units that are properly tagged with keywords, or other metadata, and often stored in an XML file format. Creating a course requires putting together a sequence of learning objects. There are both proprietary and open, non-commercial and commercial, peer-reviewed repositories of learning objects such as the Merlot repository.

A common standard format for e-learning content is SCORM whilst other specifications allow for the transporting of “learning objects” (Schools Framework) or categorizing metadata (LOM).

These standards themselves are early in the maturity process with the oldest being 8 years old. They are also relatively vertical specific: SIF is primarily pK-12, LOM is primarily Corp, Military and Higher Ed, and SCORM is primarily Military and Corp with some Higher Ed. PESC- the Post-Secondary Education Standards Council- is also making headway in developing standards and learning objects for the Higher Ed space, while SIF is beginning to seriously turn towards Instructional and Curriculum learning objects.

In the US pK12 space there are a host of content standards that are critical as well- the NCES data standards are a prime example. Each state government’s content standards and achievement benchmarks are critical metadata for linking e-learning objects in that space.

An excellent example of e-learning that relates to knowledge management and reusability is Navy E-Learning, which is available to Active Duty, Retired, or Disable Military members. This on-line tool provides certificate courses to enrich the user in various subjects related to military training and civilian skill sets. The e-learning system not only provides learning objectives, but also evaluates the progress of the student and credit can be earned toward higher learning institutions. This reuse is an excellent example of knowledge retention and the cyclical process of knowledge transfer and use of data and records.

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All New Theories And Concepts About Translation In New Century

Translation is ultimately a human activity which enables human beings to exchange ideas and thoughts regardless of the different tongues used. Al Wassety (2001) views the phenomenon of translation as a legitimate offspring of the phenomenon of language, since originally, when humans spread over the earth, their languages differed and they needed a means through which people speaking a certain language (tongue) would interact with others who spoke a different language.

Translation is, in Enani’s (1997) view, a modern science at the interface of philosophy, linguistics, psychology, and sociology. Literary translation in particular is relevant to all these sciences, audio-visual arts, as well as cultural and intellectual studTranslation is, in Chabban’s words (1984:5), “a finicky job,” as it has not yet been reduced to strict scientific rules, and it allows for the differences that are known to exist between different personalities. Translation is a heavily subjective art, especially when it deals with matters outside the realm of science where precisely defined concepts are more often expressed by certain generally accepted terms.

In the final analysis, translation is a science, an art, and a skill. It is a science in the sense that it necessitates complete knowledge of the structure and make-up of the two languages concerned. It is an art since it requires artistic talent to reconstruct the original text in the form of a product that is presentable to the reader who is not supposed to be familiar with the original. It is also a skill because it entails the ability to smooth over any difficulty in the translation, and the ability to provide the translation of something that has no equal in the target language.

In translation, the richness of vocabulary, depth of culture, and vision of the translator could certainly have very conspicuous effects on his/her work. Another translator might produce a reasonably acceptable version of the same text, which, however, may very well reflect a completely different background, culture, sensitivity, and temperament. Such differences cannot, in Chabban’s view (1984), detract from the merit of either translator. This is simply because translation is decidedly a more difficult job than creation.

The question of the possibility of translation is widely regarded as crucial to any understanding of what language is. If translation is not possible, then what is it that language does? Translation is possible in the sense that we humans have been doing it (or claiming to have done it) for many thousands of years, but we have been doing so without any assurance that the message sent was indeed the message that was received. If I ask you to open the window and you then do just that, it may not be too presumptuous to think that the message has successfully been translated, but in the case of a great many possible linguistic instances — probably the vast majority — that sort of unambiguous confirmation is not possible.

 Even in the present case, your “compliance” with my request may be the result of sheer coincidence, of my misunderstanding of what you’ve done, or of some entirely extraneous factor.

Translation between languages is not the whole of translation, but it is an especially illuminating limit case of a much broader phenomenon. The need to translate the spoken word (either within or between languages) presents serious practical difficulties for a great many people on a day-to-day basis. However, it is written texts that most profoundly present the theoretical problem of translation; a “literal” translation would be inconceivable in an entirely oral culture. Indeed, the notion of “fidelity” to an “original” must be quite different in an oral culture than it is in a print-dominated culture.

In addition, written texts raise the question of the “translation” between speech and writing. The creation of alphabets and the writing down of oral traditions authorize or at least permit the separation of the linguistic medium from its significant content — after all, a “translation” has already occurred, in the writing down of the spoken word. Either content or medium may change, independently of the other. This is why Socrates attacked writing, in the Phaedrus: writing is both powerful and dangerous — it is magical — and the possibility that translation will transform the words beyond recognition threatens the search for truth. 

Only two centuries after Socrates distinguished between the living, seminal word that arises from the dialectic of minds, and the poisonous written word that kills the memory, Jewish scribes translated the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. This was at a time when what Walter Ong calls chirographic culture was growing rapidly in importance, a time in which alphabetic writing was becoming more and more influential upon the

Mediterranean world, although oral culture still dominated. It was to this cultural transformation, and the attendant threat of the loss of meaning, that Judaism, Christianity, and Islam– religions on which the written word has had tremendous influence — responded in their different views of the translatability of scripture.

The question of translation has profound theological dimensions. The question of scripture” — its nature, meaning, and authority — is inseparable from that of translation.

Even in our modern world, readers tend to regard the original work — whether “holy scripture” or secular literature — as superior to as as and more authoritative than any of its translated versions. In Islam this tendency reaches an extreme. Muslims believe that Allah dictated his revelation through Mohammed in Arabic, and the only true or proper Quran is the Quran in Arabic. Arabic is the one divine language. The material body of the text and its meaning are held to be inseparable, and the problem of translation is eliminated, because the possibility of valid translation is denied. Or rather, the problem is disguised and absorbed into the larger hermeneutical problem– the more general question of the text’s meaning.

In contrast, the Jewish and Christian traditions permit from a very early date — with the Septuagint (ca. 200 BCE) and the New Testament (first century CE) – the translation both of the language and of the concepts of the Hebrew Scriptures. Hebrew is thought of as the holy language in at least some Jewish communities, and Jews remain ambivalent toward the status of the Torah in translation. In one legend concerning the writing of the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, God favors this act of translation through the miraculous unanimity of the seventy translators’ work.

However, in another account, God’s disapproval of the translating is manifested through unnatural darkness over the earth.

In the oldest stratum of the Hebrew Scriptures, the story of the Tower of Babel

(Gen.11:1-9) implicitly denies that any human language is the language of God and explicitly asserts that “the language of all the earth” has been “confused” by God. The multiplicity of languages is a punishment (or gift?) from God: translation is both necessary and impossible. It is the goal of the Kabbalah, the mystical rabbinic reading of the scriptures, to find reflected in our post-Babelian human languages, and especially the languages of the Torah, echoes of the true language of God.

Because the Hebrew alphabet (in pre-Masoretic form) has no vowels, the writings cannot be spoken without an interpretative addition on the part of the reader. The gulf between the written and the oral is far greater than for an English or Greek text. By itself the Hebrew text is nonsense and dependent upon vocalization for signification, and yet as canon it is always prior to speech, to any authoritative interpretation. Here the distinction between the material, written text and its meaning is quite evident. Meaningful language arises out of meaningless difference. 

Criteria for a good translation

A good translation is one that carries all the ideas of the original as well as its structural and cultural features. Massoud (1988) sets criteria for a good translation as follows:

1. A good translation is easily understood.
2. A good translation is fluent and smooth.
3. A good translation is idiomatic.
4. A good translation conveys, to some extent, the literary subtleties of the original.
5. A good translation distinguishes between the metaphorical and the literal.
6. A good translation reconstructs the cultural/historical context of the original.
7. A good translation makes explicit what is implicit in abbreviations, and in allusions to sayings, songs, and nursery rhymes.
8. A good translation will convey, as much as possible, the meaning of the original text (pp. 19-24).

El Shafey (1985: 93) suggests other criteria for a good translation; these include three main principles:

1. The knowledge of the grammar of the source language plus the knowledge of vocabulary, as well as good understanding of the text to be translated.
2. The ability of the translator to reconstitute the given text (source-language text) into the target language.
3. The translation should capture the style or atmosphere of the original text; it should have all the ease of an original composition.

From a different perspective, El Touny (2001) focused on differentiating between different types of translation. He indicated that there are eight types of translation: word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaptive translation, free translation, idiomatic translation, and communicative translation. He advocated the last type as the one which transmits the meaning from the context, respecting the form and structure of the original and which is easily comprehensible by the readers of the target language.

El Zeini (1994) didn’t seem satisfied with such criteria for assessing the quality of translation. Hence she suggested a pragmatic and stylistic model for evaluating quality in translation. She explains that the model “places equal emphasis on the pragmatic component as well on the stylistic component in translation. This model covers a set of criteria, which are divided into two main categories: content-related criteria and form-related criteria” and expected that by following these criteria, “translators will be able to minimize the chance of producing errors or losses, as well as eliminate problems of unacceptability” .  

Translation problems

Translation problems can be divided into linguistic problems and cultural problems: the linguistic problems include grammatical differences, lexical ambiguity and meaning ambiguity; the cultural problems refer to different situational features. This classification coincides with that of El Zeini when she identified six main problems in translating from Arabic to English and vice versa; these are lexicon, morphology, syntax, textual differences, rhetorical differences, and pragmatic factors.

Another level of difficulty in translation work is what As-sayyd (1995) found when she conducted a study to compare and assess some problems in translating the fair names of Allah in the Qu’ran. She pointed out that some of the major problems of translation are over-translation, under-translation, and untranslatability.

Culture constitutes another major problem that faces translators. A bad model of translated pieces of literature may give misconceptions about the original. That is why Fionty (2001) thought that poorly translated texts distort the original in its tone and cultural references, while Zidan (1994) wondered about the possible role of the target culture content as a motivating variable in enhancing or hindering the attainment of linguistic, communicative and, more importantly, cultural objectives of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) education. Hassan (1997) emphasized this notion when he pointed out the importance of paying attention to the translation of irony in the source language context. He clarified that this will not only transfer the features of the language translated but also its cultural characteristics.

The translator’s work

These problems, and others, direct our attention to the work and the character of translators, how they attack a text so as to translate, and the processes they follow to arrive at the final product of a well-translated text in the target language.

Enani (1994:5) defines the translator as “a writer who formulates ideas in words addressed to readers. The only difference between him and the original writer is that these ideas are the latter’s”. Another difference is that the work of the translator is even more difficult than that of the artist. The artist is supposed to produce directly his/her ideas and emotions in his/her own language however intricate and complicated his/her thoughts are. The translator’s responsibility is much greater, for s/he has to relive the experiences of a different person. Chabban (1984) believes that, however accurately the translator may delve into the inner depths of the writer’s mind, some formidable linguistic and other difficulties may still prevent the two texts from being fully equivalent. Therefore we do not only perceive the differences between a certain text and its translation, but also between different translations of the same text

On the procedural level, El Shafey (1985:95) states: “A translator first analyzes the message, breaking it down into its simplest and structurally clearest elements, transfers it at this level into the target language in the form which is most appropriate for the intended audience. A translator instinctively concludes that it is best to transfer the “kernel level” in one language to the corresponding “kernel level” in the “receptor language.”

Translation skills for novice translators

The present study suggests four main macro-skills for any translator who begins his/her work in the field of translation. These are: reading comprehension, researching, analytical, and composing skills. These macro-skills include many sub- or micro-skills that need to be mastered.

Reading comprehension

While we are translating, we do not think of our activity as being broken down into phases. After doing our first translations, many automatic mechanisms come into plays that allow us to translate more quickly; at the same time, we are less and less conscious of our activity.

1. The first phase of the translation process consists of reading the text. The reading act, first, falls under the competence of psychology, because it concerns our perceptive system. Reading, like translation, is, for the most part, an unconscious process. If it were conscious, we would be forced to consume much more time in the act. Most mental processes involved in the reading act are automatic and unconscious. Owing to such a nature-common and little-known in the same time-in our opinion it is important to analyze the reading process as precisely as possible. The works of some perception psychologists will be helpful to widen our knowledge of this first phase of the translation process.

When a person reads, his brain deals with many tasks in such rapid sequences that everything seems to be happening simultaneously. The eye examines (from left to right as far as many Western languages are concerned, or from right to left or from top to bottom in some other languages) a series of graphic signs (graphemes) in succession, which give life to syllables, words, sentences, paragraphs, sections, chapters, and texts.

Simply reading a text is, in itself, an act of translation. When we read, we do not store the words we have read in our minds as happens with data entered using a keyboard or scanner into a computer. After reading, we do not have the photographic or auditory recording in our minds of the text read. We have a set of impressions instead. We remember a few words or sentences precisely, while all the remaining text is translated from the verbal language into a language belonging to another sign system, which is still mostly unknown: the mental language.

The mental processing of the read verbal material is of a syntactical nature when we try to reconstruct the possible structure of the sentence, i.e. the relations among its elements. In contrast, it is of a semantic nature when we identify the relevant areas within the semantic field of any single word or sentence; and it is of a pragmatic nature when we deal with the logical match of the possible meanings with the general context and the verbal co-text.

The difference between a reader and a critic is negligible: the reader trying to understand has the same attitude as the critic, who is a systematic, methodical, and self-aware reader. While reading, the individual reads, and perceives what he reads, drawing interpretations and inferences about the possible intentions of the author of the message.

Holmes (1988) suggested that the translation process is actually a multi-level process; while we are translating sentences, we have a map of the original text in our minds and, at the same time, a map of the kind of text we want to produce in the target language. Even as we translate serially, we have this structural concept so that each sentence in our translation is determined not only by the original sentence, but also by the two maps—of the original text and of the translated text—which we carry along as we translate.

 The translation process should, therefore, be considered a complex system in which understanding, processing, and projection of the translated text are interdependent portions of one structure. We can therefore put forward, as does Hnig (1991), the existence of a sort of “central processing unit” supervising the coordination of the different mental processes (those connected to reading, interpretation, and writing) and at the same time projecting a map of the text to be.

Novice translators as well as student translators are advised to master the following basic reading comprehension skills.

• Read for gist and main ideas.
• Read for details.
• Identify the meaning of new words and expressions using one or more components of the structural analysis clause; prefixes, suffixes, roots, word order, punctuation, sentence pattern, etc.
• Identify the meaning of new words and expressions using one ore more of the contextual analysis; synonyms, antonyms, examples, etc.
• Identify the writer’s style: literary, scientific, technical, informative, persuasive, argumentative, etc.
• Identify the language level used in the text: standard, slang, religious, etc.
• Identify cultural references in the choice of words in the text.    
   

Cultural Translation 

Culture and intercultural competence and awareness that rise out of experience of culture, are far more complex phenomena than it may seem to the translator. The more a translator is aware of complexities of differences between cultures, the better a translator s/he will be. It is probably right to say that there has never been a time when the community of translators was unaware of cultural differences and their significance for translation. Translation theorists have been cognizant of the problems attendant upon cultural knowledge and cultural differences at least since ancient Rome. Cultural knowledge and cultural differences have been a major focus of translator training and translation theory for as long as either has been in existence. The main concern has traditionally been with words and phrases that are so heavily and exclusively grounded in one culture that they are almost impossible to translate into the terms – verbal or otherwise – of another. Long debate have been held over when to paraphrase, when to use the nearest local equivalent, when to coin a new word by translating literally, and when to transcribe. All these “untranslatable” cultural-bound words and phrases continued to fascinate translators and translation theorists.

The first theory developed in this field was introduced by Mounin in 1963 who underlined the importance of the signification of a lexical item claiming that only if this notion is considered will the translated item fulfill its function correctly. The problem with this theory is that all the cultural elements do not involve just the items, what a translator should do in the case of cultural implications which are implied in the background knowledge of SL readers?

The notion of culture is essential to considering the implications for translation and, despite the differences in opinion as to whether language is part of culture or not, the two notions of culture and language appear to be inseparable. In 1964, Nida discussed the problems of correspondence in translation, conferred equal importance to both linguistic and cultural differences between the SL and the TL and concluded that differences between cultures may cause more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure. It is further explained that parallels in culture often provide a common understanding despite significant formal shifts in the translation. According to him cultural implications for translation are thus of significant importance as well as lexical concerns.

Nida’s definitions of formal and dynamic equivalence in 1964 consider cultural implications for translation. According to him, a “gloss translation” mostly typifies formal equivalence where form and content are reproduced as faithfully as possible and the TL reader is able to “understand as much as he can of the customs, manner of thought, and means of expression” of the SL context. Contrasting with this idea, dynamic equivalence “tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture” without insisting that he “understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context”. According to him problems may vary in scope depending on the cultural and linguistic gap between the two (or more) languages concerned.

It can be said that the first concept in cultural translation studies was cultural turn that in 1978 was presaged by the work on Polysystems and translation norms by Even-Zohar and in 1980 by Toury. They dismiss the linguistic kinds of theories of translation and refer to them as having moved from word to text as a unit but not beyond. They themselves go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way culture impacts and constraints translation and on the larger issues of context, history and convention. Therefore, the move from translation as a text to translation as culture and politics is what they call it a Cultural Turn in translation studies and became the ground for a metaphor adopted by Bassnett and Lefevere in 1990. In fact Cultural Turn is the metaphor adopted by Cultural Studies oriented translation theories to refer to the analysis of translation in its cultural, political, and ideological context.

Since 1990, the turn has extended to incorporate a whole range of approaches from cultural studies and is a true indicator of the interdisciplinary nature of contemporary translation studies. As the result of this so called Cultural Turn, cultural studies has taken an increasingly keen interest in translation. One consequence of this has been bringing together scholars from different disciplines. It is here important to mention that these cultural theorists have kept their own ideology and agendas that drive their own criticism. These cultural approaches have widened the horizons of translation studies with new insights but at the same there has been a strong element of conflict among them. It is good to mention that the existence of such differences of perspectives is inevitable.

In the mid 1980s Vermeer introduced skopos theory which is a Greek word for ‘aim’ or ‘purpose’. It is entered into translation theory in as a technical term for the purpose of translation and of action of translating. Skopos theory focuses above all on the purpose of translation, which determines the translation method and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result. The result is TT, which Vermeer calls translatum. Therefore, knowing why SL is to be translated and what function of TT will be are crucial for the translator.

In 1984, Reiss and Vermeer in their book with the title of ‘Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation’ concentrated on the basic underlying ‘rules’ of this theory which involve: 1- A translatum (or TT) is determined by its skopos, 2- A TT is an offer of information in a target culture and TL considering an offer of information in a source culture and SL. This relates the ST and TT to their function in their respective linguistic and cultural context. The translator is once again the key player in the process of intercultural communication and production of the translatum because of the purpose of the translation.

In 1992, Coulthard highlightd the importance of defining the ideal reader for whom the author attributes knowledge of certain facts, memory of certain experiences … plus certain opinions, preferences and prejudices and a certain level of linguistic competence. When considering such aspects, the extent to which the author may be influenced by such notions which depend on his own sense of belonging to a specific socio-cultural group should not be forgotten.

Coulthard stated that once the ideal ST readership has been determined, considerations must be made concerning the TT. He said that the translator’s first and major difficulty is the construction of a new ideal reader who, even if he has the same academic, professional and intellectual level as the original reader, will have significantly different textual expectations and cultural knowledge.

In the case of the extract translated here, it is debatable whether the ideal TT reader has “significantly different textual expectations,” however his cultural knowledge will almost certainly vary considerably.

Applied to the criteria used to determine the ideal ST reader it may be noted that few conditions are successfully met by the potential ideal TT reader. Indeed, the historical and cultural facts are unlikely to be known in detail along with the specific cultural situations described. Furthermore, despite considering the level of linguistic competence to be roughly equal for the ST and TT reader, certain differences may possibly be noted in response to the use of culturally specific lexis which must be considered when translating. Although certain opinions, preferences and prejudices may be instinctively transposed by the TT reader who may liken them to his own experience, it must be remembered that these do not match the social situation experience of the ST reader. Therefore, Coulthard mainly stated that the core social and cultural aspects remain problematic when considering the cultural implications for translation.  

Equivalence in Translation 

1.1 Vinay and Darbelnet and their definition of equivalence in translation

Vinay and Darbelnet view equivalence-oriented translation as a procedure which ‘replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different wording’ .They also suggest that, if this procedure is applied during the translation process, it can maintain the stylistic impact of the SL text in the TL text. According to them, equivalence is therefore the ideal method when the translator has to deal with proverbs, idioms, clichés, nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of animal sounds.

With regard to equivalent expressions between language pairs, Vinay and Darbelnet claim that they are acceptable as long as they are listed in a bilingual dictionary as ‘full equivalents’. However, later they note that glossaries and collections of idiomatic expressions ‘can never be exhaustive’. They conclude by saying that ‘the need for creating equivalences arises from the situation, and it is in the situation of the SL text that translators have to look for a solution’. Indeed, they argue that even if the semantic equivalent of an expression in the SL text is quoted in a dictionary or a glossary, it is not enough, and it does not guarantee a successful translation. They provide a number of examples to prove their theory, and the following expression appears in their list: Take one is a fixed expression which would have as an equivalent French translation Prenez-en un. However, if the expression appeared as a notice next to a basket of free samples in a large store, the translator would have to look for an equivalent term in a similar situation and use the expression Échantillon gratuit .
1.2 Jakobson and the concept of equivalence in difference

Roman Jakobson’s study of equivalence gave new impetus to the theoretical analysis of translation since he introduced the notion of ‘equivalence in difference’. On the basis of his semiotic approach to language and his aphorism ‘there is no signatum without signum’ (1959:232), he suggests three kinds of translation:

• Intralingual (within one language, i.e. rewording or paraphrase)
   
• Interlingual (between two languages)
   
• Intersemiotic (between sign systems)

Jakobson claims that, in the case of interlingual translation, the translator makes use of synonyms in order to get the ST message across. This means that in interlingual translations there is no full equivalence between code units. According to his theory, ‘translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes’ (ibid.:233). Jakobson goes on to say that from a grammatical point of view languages may differ from one another to a greater or lesser degree, but this does not mean that a translation cannot be possible, in other words, that the translator may face the problem of not finding a translation equivalent. He acknowledges that ‘whenever there is deficiency, terminology may be qualified and amplified by loanwords or loan-translations, neologisms or semantic shifts, and finally, by circumlocutions’. Jakobson provides a number of examples by comparing English and Russian language structures and explains that in such cases where there is no a literal equivalent for a particular ST word or sentence, then it is up to the translator to choose the most suitable way to render it in the TT.

There seems to be some similarity between Vinay and Darbelnet’s theory of translation procedures and Jakobson’s theory of translation. Both theories stress the fact that, whenever a linguistic approach is no longer suitable to carry out a translation, the translator can rely on other procedures such as loan-translations, neologisms and the like. Both theories recognize the limitations of a linguistic theory and argue that a translation can never be impossible since there are several methods that the translator can choose. The role of the translator as the person who decides how to carry out the translation is emphasized in both theories. Both Vinay and Darbelnet as well as Jakobson conceive the translation task as something which can always be carried out from one language to another, regardless of the cultural or grammatical differences between ST and TT.

It can be concluded that Jakobson’s theory is essentially based on his semiotic approach to translation according to which the translator has to recode the ST message first and then s/he has to transmit it into an equivalent message for the TC.

1.3 Nida and Taber: Formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence

Nida argued that there are two different types of equivalence, namely formal equivalence—which in the second edition by Nida and Taber (1982) is referred to as formal correspondence—and dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence ‘focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content’, unlike dynamic equivalence which is based upon ‘the principle of equivalent effect’ (1964:159). In the second edition (1982) or their work, the two theorists provide a more detailed explanation of each type of equivalence.

Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a SL word or phrase. Nida and Taber make it clear that there are not always formal equivalents between language pairs. They therefore suggest that these formal equivalents should be used wherever possible if the translation aims at achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the TT since the translation will not be easily understood by the target audience (Fawcett, 1997). Nida and Taber themselves assert that ‘Typically, formal correspondence distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor language, and hence distorts the message, so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labor unduly hard’ .

Dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the TL wording will trigger the same impact on the TC audience as the original wording did upon the ST audience. They argue that ‘Frequently, the form of the original text is changed; but as long as the change follows the rules of back transformation in the source language, of contextual consistency in the transfer, and of transformation in the receptor language, the message is preserved and the translation is faithful’ (Nida and Taber, 1982:200).

One can easily see that Nida is in favour of the application of dynamic equivalence, as a more effective translation procedure. This is perfectly understandable if we take into account the context of the situation in which Nida was dealing with the translation phenomenon, that is to say, his translation of the Bible. Thus, the product of the translation process, that is the text in the TL, must have the same impact on the different readers it was addressing. Despite using a linguistic approach to translation, Nida is much more interested in the message of the text or, in other words, in its semantic quality.  

1.4 Catford and the introduction of translation shifts

Catford’s approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that adopted by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more linguistic-based approach to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. His main contribution in the field of translation theory is the introduction of the concepts of types and shifts of translation. Catford proposed very broad types of translation in terms of three criteria:

1. The extent of translation (full translation vs partial translation);
    
2. The grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank-bound translation vs. unbounded translation);
    
3. The levels of language involved in translation (total translation vs. restricted translation).

We will refer only to the second type of translation, since this is the one that concerns the concept of equivalence, and we will then move on to analyze the notion of translation shifts, as elaborated by Catford, which are based on the distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence. In rank-bound translation an equivalent is sought in the TL for each word, or for each morpheme encountered in the ST.  One of the problems with formal correspondence is that, despite being a useful tool to employ in comparative linguistics, it seems that it is not really relevant in terms of assessing translation equivalence between ST and TT. For this reason we now turn to Catford’s other dimension of correspondence, namely textual equivalence which occurs when any TL text or portion of text is ‘observed on a particular occasion … to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text’. He implements this by a process of commutation, whereby ‘a competent bilingual informant or translator’ is consulted on the translation of various sentences whose ST items are changed in order to observe ‘what changes if any occur in the TL text as a consequence’ .

As far as translation shifts are concerned, Catford defines them as ‘departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL’ (ibid.:73). Catford argues that there are two main types of translation shifts, namely level shifts, where the SL item at one linguistic level (e.g. grammar) has a TL equivalent at a different level (e.g. lexis), and category shifts which are divided into four types:

1. Structure-shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and that of the TT;
    
2. Class-shifts, when a SL item is translated with a TL item which belongs to a different grammatical class, i.e. a verb may be translated with a noun;
    
3. Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank;
    
4. Intra-system shifts, which occur when ‘SL and TL possess systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system’. For instance, when the SL singular becomes a TL plural.

Catford was very much criticized for his linguistic theory of translation. One of the most scathing criticisms came from Snell-Hornby (1988), who argued that Catford’s definition of textual equivalence is ‘circular’, his theory’s reliance on bilingual informants ‘hopelessly inadequate’, and his example sentences ‘isolated and even absurdly simplistic’ .She considers the concept of equivalence in translation as being an illusion. She asserts that the translation process cannot simply be reduced to a linguistic exercise, as claimed by Catford for instance, since there are also other factors, such as textual, cultural and situational aspects, which should be taken into consideration when translating. In other words, she does not believe that linguistics is the only discipline which enables people to carry out a translation, since translating involves different cultures and different situations at the same time and they do not always match from one language to another.

1.5 House and the elaboration of overt and covert translation

House (1977) is in favour of semantic and pragmatic equivalence and argues that ST and TT should match one another in function. House suggests that it is possible to characterize the function of a text by determining the situational dimensions of the ST.In fact, according to her theory, every text is in itself is placed within a particular situation which has to be correctly identified and taken into account by the translator. After the ST analysis, House is in a position to evaluate a translation; if the ST and the TT differ substantially on situational features, then they are not functionally equivalent, and the translation is not of a high quality. In fact, she acknowledges that ‘a translation text should not only match its source text in function, but employ equivalent situational-dimensional means to achieve that function’ .

Central to House’s discussion is the concept of overt and covert translations. In an overt translation the TT audience is not directly addressed and there is therefore no need at all to attempt to recreate a ’second original’ since an overt translation ‘must overtly be a translation’ .By covert translation, on the other hand, is meant the production of a text which is functionally equivalent to the ST. House also argues that in this type of translation the ST ‘is not specifically addressed to a TC audience’ .

House  sets out the types of ST that would probably yield translations of the two categories. An academic article, for instance, is unlikely to exhibit any features specific to the SC; the article has the same argumentative or expository force that it would if it had originated in the TL, and the fact that it is a translation at all need not be made known to the readers. A political speech in the SC, on the other hand, is addressed to a particular cultural or national group which the speaker sets out to move to action or otherwise influence, whereas the TT merely informs outsiders what the speaker is saying to his or her constituency. It is clear that in this latter case, which is an instance of overt translation, functional equivalence cannot be maintained, and it is therefore intended that the ST and the TT function differently.
House’s theory of equivalence in translation seems to be much more flexible than Catford’s. In fact, she gives authentic examples, uses complete texts and, more importantly, she relates linguistic features to the context of both source and target text.

1.6 Baker’s approach to translation equivalence

New adjectives have been assigned to the notion of equivalence (grammatical, textual, pragmatic equivalence, and several others) and made their appearance in the plethora of recent works in this field. An extremely interesting discussion of the notion of equivalence can be found in Baker (1992) who seems to offer a more detailed list of conditions upon which the concept of equivalence can be defined. She explores the notion of equivalence at different levels, in relation to the translation process, including all different aspects of translation and hence putting together the linguistic and the communicative approach. She distinguishes between:

• Equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, when translating from one language into another. Baker acknowledges that, in a bottom-up approach to translation, equivalence at word level is the first element to be taken into consideration by the translator. In fact, when the translator starts analyzing the ST s/he looks at the words as single units in order to find a direct ‘equivalent’ term in the TL. Baker gives a definition of the term word since it should be remembered that a single word can sometimes be assigned different meanings in different languages and might be regarded as being a more complex unit or morpheme. This means that the translator should pay attention to a number of factors when considering a single word, such as number, gender and tense.

• Grammatical equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical categories across languages. She notes that grammatical rules may vary across languages and this may pose some problems in terms of finding a direct correspondence in the TL. In fact, she claims that different grammatical structures in the SL and TL may cause remarkable changes in the way the information or message is carried across. These changes may induce the translator either to add or to omit information in the TT because of the lack of particular grammatical devices in the TL itself. Amongst these grammatical devices which might cause problems in translation Baker focuses on number, tense and aspects, voice, person and gender.

• Textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a SL text and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion. Texture is a very important feature in translation since it provides useful guidelines for the comprehension and analysis of the ST which can help the translator in his or her attempt to produce a cohesive and coherent text for the TC audience in a specific context. It is up to the translator to decide whether or not to maintain the cohesive ties as well as the coherence of the SL text. His or her decision will be guided by three main factors, that is, the target audience, the purpose of the translation and the text type.

• Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to implicatures and strategies of avoidance during the translation process. Implicature is not about what is explicitly said but what is implied. Therefore, the translator needs to work out implied meanings in translation in order to get the ST message across. The role of the translator is to recreate the author’s intention in another culture in such a way that enables the TC reader to understand it clearly.

Postcolonialism and Multiculturalism 

 In 1993 Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak was the one who introduced postcolonialism. Post-colonialism is one of the most thriving points of contact between Cultural Studies and Translation Studies. It can be defined as a broad cultural approach to the study of power relations between different groups, cultures or peoples in which language, literature and translation may play a role. Spivak’s work is indicative of how cultural studies and especially post-colonialism has over the past decade focused on issues of translation, the translational and colonization. The linking of colonization and translation is accompanied by the argument that translation has played an active role in the colonization process and in disseminating an ideologically motivated image of colonized people. The metaphor has been used of the colony as an imitative and inferior translational copy whose suppressed identity has been overwritten by the colonizer.

The postcolonial concepts may have conveyed a view of translation as just a damaging instrument of the colonizers who imposed their language and used translation to construct a distorted image of the suppressed people which served to reinforce the hierarchal structure of the colony. However, some critics of post-colonialism, like Robinson, believe that the view of the translation as purely harmful and pernicious tool of the empire is inaccurate.

Like the other cultural theorists, Venuti in 1995 insisted that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take the account of the value-driven nature of sociocultural framework. He used the term invisibility to describe the translator situation and activity in Anglo-American culture. He said that this invisibility is produced by:

1- The way the translators themselves tend to translate fluently into English, to produce an idiomatic and readable TT, thus creating illusion of transparency.

2- The way the translated texts are typically read in the target culture:

“A translated text, whether prose or poetry or non-fiction, is judged acceptable by most publishers, reviewers and readers when it reads fluently, when the absence of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent, giving the appearance that it reflects the foreign writer’s personality or intention or the essential meaning the foreign text_ the appearance, in other words, that the translation is not in fact a translation, but the original.”

(Venuti, 1999)

Venuti discussed invisibility hand in hand with two types of translating strategies: domestication and foreignization. He considered domestication as dominating Anglo-American (TL) translation culture. Just as the postcolonialists were alert to the cultural effects of the differential in power relation between colony and ex-colony, so Venuti bemoaned the phenomenon of domestication since it involves reduction of the foreign text to the target language cultural values. This entails translating in a transparent, fluent, invisible style in order to minimize the foreignness of the TT. Venuti believed that a translator should leave the reader in peace, as much as possible, and he should move the author toward him.

Foregnization, on the other hand, entails choosing a foreign text and developing a translation method along lines which excluded by dominant cultural values in target language. Ventuti considers the foreignizing method to be an ethno deviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad. According to him it is highly desirable in an effort to restrain the ethnocentric violence translation. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also termed ‘resistancy’ , is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the persistence of translator by highlighting the foreign identity of ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.

In his later book ‘The Scandals of Translation’ Venuti insisted on foreignizing or, as he also called it, ‘minoritizing’ translatin, to cultivate a varied and heterogeneous discourse. As far as language is concerned, the minoritizing or foriegnizing method of Venuti’s translation comes through in the deliberate inclusion of foreignizing elements in a bid to make the translator visible and to make the reader realize that he is reading a translation of the work from a foreign culture. Foreignization is close adherent to the ST structure and syntax.

Venuti also said that the terms may change meaning across time and location.

In 1996, Simon mentioned that cultural studies brings to translation an understanding of the complexities of gender and culture and it allows us to situate linguistic transfer. She considered a language of sexism in translation studies, with its image of dominance, fidelity, faithfulness and betrayal. She mentioned the seventeenth century image of “les belles infidels” (unfaithful beauties), translations into French that were artistically beautiful but unfaithful. She went further and investigated George Steiner’s male-oriented image of translation as penetration.

The feminist theorists, more or less, see a parallel between the status of translation which is often considered to be derivative and inferior to the original writing and that of women so often repressed in society and literature. This is the core feminist translation that theory seeks to identify and critique the tangle of the concepts which relegate both women and translation to the bottom of the social and literary ladder. Simon takes this further in the concept of the committed translation project. Translation project here can be defined as such: An approach to literary translation in which feminist translators openly advocate and implement strategies (linguistic or otherwise) to foreground the feminist in the translated text. It may seem worthy to mention that the opposite of translation project occurs when gender-marked works are translated in such a way that their distinctive characteristics are affected.

With the spread of deconstruction and cultural studies in the academy, the subject of ideology became an important area of study. The field of translation studies presents no exception to this general trend. It should also be mentioned that the concept of ideology is not something new and it has been an area of interest from a long time ago. The problem of discussing translation and ideology is one of definition. There are so many definitions of ideology that it is impossible to review them all. For instance as Hatim and Mason (1997) stated that ideology encompasses the tacit assumptions, beliefs and value systems which are shared collectively by social groups. They make a distinction between the ideology of translating and the translation of ideology. Whereas the former refers to the basic orientation chosen by the translator operating within a social and cultural context. In translation of ideology they examined the extent of mediation supplied by a translator of sensitive texts. Here mediation is defined as the extent to which translators intervene in the transfer process, feeding their own knowledge and beliefs into processing the text.

In 1999 Hermans stated that Culture refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life. According to him translation can and should be recognized as a social phenomenon, a cultural practice. He said that we bring to translation both cognitive and normative expectations, which are continually being negotiated, confirmed, adjusted, and modified by practicing translators and by all who deal with translation. These expectations result from the communication within the translation system, for instance, between actual translations and statements about translation, and between the translation system and other social systems.

In 2002, regarding cultural translation Hervey and Higgins believed in cultural translation rather than literal one. According to them accepting literal translation means that there’s no cultural translation operation. But obviously there are some obstacles bigger than linguistic ones. They are cultural obstacles and here a transposition in culture is needed.

According to Hervey & Higgins cultural transposition has a scale of degrees which are toward the choice of features indigenous to target language and culture rather than features which are rooted in source culture. The result here is foreign features reduced in target text and is to some extent naturalized. The scale here is from an extreme which is mostly based on source culture (exoticism) to the other extreme which is mostly based on target culture (cultural transplantation):

Exoticism

1) Exoticism
The degree of adaptation is very low here. The translation carries the cultural features and grammar of SL to TL. It is very close to transference.

2) Calque
Calque includes TL words but in SL structure therefore while it is unidiomatic to target reader but it is familiar to a large extent.

3) Cultural Borrowing
It is to transfer the ST expression verbatim into the TT. No adaptation of SL expression into TL forms. After a time they usually become a standard in TL terms. Cultural borrowing is very frequent in history, legal, social, political texts; for example, “La langue” and “La parole” in linguistics.

4) Communicative Translation
Communicative translation is usually adopted for culture specific clichés such as idioms, proverbs, fixed expression, etc. In such cases the translator substitutes SL word with an existing concept in target culture. In cultural substitution the propositional meaning is not the same but it has similar impact on target reader. The literal translation here may sound comic. The degree of using this strategy some times depends on the license which is given to the translator by commissioners and also the purpose of translation.

5) Cultural Transplantation
The whole text is rewritten in target culture. The TL word is not a literal equivalent but has similar cultural connotations to some extent. It is another type of extreme but toward target culture and the whole concept is transplanted in TL. A normal translation should avoid both exoticism and cultural transplantation.

In 2004, Nico Wiersema in his essay “globalization and translation” stated that globalization is linked to English being a lingua franca; the language is said to be used at conferences (interpreting) and seen as the main language in the new technologies. The use of English as a global language is an important trend in world communication. Globalisation is also linked to the field of Translation Studies. Furthermore, globalisation is placed in the context of changes in economics, science, technology, and society. Globalization and technology are very helpful to translators in that translators have more access to online information, such as dictionaries of lesser-known languages. According to him such comments can be extended to the readers of translations. Should the target text be challenging for a reader, the internet can help him understand foreign elements in the text. Thus the text can be written in a more foreignising / exoticising manner. He mentioned a relatively new trend wherein culturally bound elements (some, one might say, untranslatable), are not translated. He believed that this trend contributes to learning and understanding foreign cultures. Context explains culture, and adopting (not necessarily adapting) a selection of words enriches the target text, makes it more exotic and thus more interesting for those who want to learn more about the culture in question. Eventually, these new words may find their way into target language dictionaries. Translators will then have contributed to enriching their own languages with loan words from the source language (esp. English).

He considered these entering loan words into TL as an important aspect of translation. Translation brings cultures closer. He stated that at this century the process of globalization is moving faster than ever before and there is no indication that it will stall any time soon. In each translation there will be a certain distortion between cultures. The translator will have to defend the choices he/she makes, but there is currently an option for including more foreign words in target texts. Therefore, it is now possible to keep SL cultural elements in target texts. In each translation there will be a certain distortion between cultures. The translator will have to defend the choices he/she makes, but there is currently an option for including more foreign words in target texts.

The relationship between multiculturalism and postcolonialism appears to be an uneasy one. Multiculturalism deals with theories of difference but unlike postcolonialism, which is to a great extent is perceived to be defined by its specific historic legacies in a retroactive way, multiculturalism deals with the management (often compromised) of contemporary geo-political diversity in former imperial centres as well as their ex-colonies alike. It is also increasingly a global discourse since it takes into account the flow of migrants, refugees, Diasporas and their relations with nation-states. The reason for continuing to focus on multiculturalism, particularly a critical multiculturalism, is precisely because it is so intimately bound up in many parts of the world with those practices and discourses which manage (often in the sense of police and control) ‘diversity’. Within critical theory it has often been an embarrassing term to invoke partly because it is seen as automatically aligned with and hopelessly co-opted by the state in its role of certain kinds of conscious nation – building. As a result, for example, it is consistently rejected by anti-racist groups in Great Britain (Hall, 1995). In the realm of theoretical debate it is often associated with an identity politics based on essentialism and claims for authenticity which automatically reinstates a version of the sovereign subject and a concern with reified notions of origins. Thus it becomes impossible; it seems, to mention multiculturalism and socially progressive critical theory in the same breath. But for all those reasons, because it is a contested term, is exactly why it is crucial to continue to scrutinize the discourses and practices mobilized in the name of multiculturalism.  

Multiculturalism purports to deal with minorities and thus implies a relation with a majority, but how these two categories are defined and wielded in relation to each other is highly contested and further complicated by differences in articulation between advanced capitalist countries and the so-called Third World; between ’settler societies’ and, for example, the European community. In general, the organizing factor for the minorities are such terms as ‘race’, ‘ethnicity’, and ‘indigeneity’ while their origins are causally linked to migration, to colonization and other kinds of subjugation. With respect to ‘race’ it would be more accurate to refer to the processes of radicalization involved in representing minorities than to the existence of unproblematic racial categories. ‘Ethnicity’ as a defining category was initially employed as a differential term to avoid ‘race’ and its implications of a discredited ’scientific’ racism. Ethnicity was more easily attached to the European migrations which proliferated around the two world wars. In North America, phrases such as ‘visible minorities’ were developed to categorize non-European immigrants who formed part of mass diasporas and neatly encapsulated as well the indigenous groups and those descendants of African slaves who had been an uneasily acknowledged part of the ‘nation’ for many centuries. Hence multi-culturalism is often perceived as a covert means of indicating racialized differences. The need to deconstruct the ‘natural’ facade of racialization is clear when one notes that groups such as Ukrainians in Canada and Greeks and Italians in Australia were designated ‘black’ at various historical stages (Gunew, 1994). Further difficulties encountered by indigenous groups are highlighted in Australia where the Aborigines refuse to be included in multicultural discourses on the grounds that these refer only to cultures of migration, whereas in New Zealand ‘biculturalism’ is the preferred official term because multiculturalism is seen as a diversion from the Maori sovereignty movement. In Canada First Nations are occasionally included in multicultural discourses and practices and are also consistently trapped between the French-English divide. This has complicated continuing debates on cultural appropriation (Crosby, 1994).

1. Discussions must also distinguish between state multiculturalism, dealing with the management of diversity, and critical multiculturalism used by minorities as a lever to argue for participation, grounded in their difference, in the public sphere. Minorities use a variety of strategies to overcome the assimilationist presumptions of most state multiculturalism. Crucial to both areas is the notion of ‘community’ and here women are particularly affected.   

According to Nico Wiersema (2004), Cultures are getting closer and closer and this is something that he believed translators need to take into account. In the end it all depends on what the translator, or more often, the publisher wants to achieve with a certain translation. In his opinion by entering SL cultural elements:

a- The text will be read more fluently (no stops)
b- The text remains more exotic, more foreign
c- The translator is closer to the source culture
d- The reader of the target texts gets a more genuine image of the source culture.

In 2004, ke Ping regarding translation and culture paid attention to misreading and presupposition. He mentioned that of the many factors that may lead to misreading in translation are cultural presuppositions.

Cultural presuppositions merit special attention from translators because they can substantially and systematically affect their interpretation of facts and events in the source text without their even knowing it. He pinpointed the relationship between cultural presuppositions and translational misreading. According to him misreading in translation are often caused by a translator’s presuppositions about the reality of the source language community. These presuppositions are usually culturally-derived and deserve the special attention of the translator. He showed how cultural presuppositions work to produce misreading in translation.

According to ke Ping “Cultural presupposition,” refers to underlying assumptions, beliefs, and ideas that are culturally rooted, widespread.

· According to him anthropologists agree on the following features of culture:

(1) Culture is socially acquired instead of biologically transmitted;
(2) Culture is shared among the members of a community rather than being unique to an individual;
(3) Culture is symbolic. Symbolizing means assigning to entities and events meanings which are external to them and which cannot be grasped alone. Language is the most typical symbolic system within culture;
(4) Culture is integrated. Each aspect of culture is tied in with all

About the Author

MA in TRANSLATION, Great Translation Theoretician,Mazandaran province, Ghaemshar city,IRAN

1. The reflex that makes our facial expressions of emotions occur automatically when triggered is called the?

a.facial-affect program
b.display rules
c.James-Lange theory
d.facial-feedback hypothesis
2.During The early Middle Ages, many Christian hermits lived in solitude, shunning social contacts so that they could introspect and reflect on spiritual thoughts. Those reclusive religious hermits were apparently
a.high in need for esteem
b.high is need for achievement
c.low in need for affiliation
d.low in need for influence
3.According to the results of a study that compared gender stereotypes across nations, gender stereotypes
a.were fairly similar across cultures
b.favored women over men in Eastern cultures
c.favored women over men in most of the nations studied
d.existed only in industrialized nations

1. d; Facial-feedback hypothesis
2. d; low in need for influence
3. a; fairly similar across cultures
4. a; power

Not a 100% on all of them. You should double check, but I think those are close to right ; )