Return To Glory: [VHS] The Powerful Stirring of the Black Race $12.00 This is the VHS video tape version of the Return To Glory film. RTG Pictures has made the film (VHS) version of Return To Glory. Don Griffin and Joel Freeman have ensured that the message of the book is retained and production team has ensured that the production values are of broadcast quality. Endorsed by such notables as Bill Cosby, Julius Erving, Ben Carson, Joe Frazier, Tony Campolo an…

ABC News Primetime Game Theory $19.95 Can 12 Strangers find each other in New York City, having never met and without any clue where to look? According to the Nobel Prize-winning theory of human behavior called “game theory,” it will come down to common perceptions. ABC News reports on the fascinating behavior played out on a Manhattan-sized game board. And, a completely new way to lose 15 pounds in two months? With five volunteers, A…

Last One Picked… First One Picked On: Learning Disabilities and Social Skills $72.94 Please note – DVD-R format. Playing with friends is a daily ritual for most children. But kids with learning disabilities are often isolated and rejected. Rick Lavoie addresses the social problems these children face – and offers some practical solutions for parents. Every child has experienced embarrassment or rejection in social situations. But kids with learning disabilities are often isolated …

How Do You Kill 11 Million People?: Why the Truth Matters More Than You Think $8.00 It all comes down to the truth. Much like the character in one of his best-selling books, Andy Andrews is first and foremost a Noticer.  Sometimes, all one needs is a little perspective and Andy has been providing that perspective to some of the world’s most influential companies and organizations for the last 20 years.  His ability to transform an individual by their own understanding and desi…

The Millionaire Next Door: The Surprising Secrets of America’s Wealthy (Millionaire Set) $12.99 In this New York Times best-selling book, The Millionaire Next Door: The Surprising Secrets of America’s Wealthy, Dr. Thomas J. Stanley uses over two decades worth of surveys, personal interviews with millionaires, and data to reveal the secrets for building wealth in America. Dr. Stanley shattered the contemporary held beliefs about America’s rich – and how they got that way. It is seldom inherit…

Motivation Monday 8_29_2011.mp4

Conscious And Unconscious Motivation

Unconscious motivation- According to Sigmund Freud’s theories of human behavior, he asserts that most of human behavior is as a result of desires, impulses, and memories that have been repressed into an unconscious state, but control human actions. He believed that our minds consists of  a tiny conscious part that is always available for direct observation and subconscious  part that is responsible for determining human behavior. For example when someone displays negative attitude towards something, he/she is always expressing his unconscious feelings of dislike.

On the other hand Freud said that repressed memories and desires are the major cause of mental disorders and that people who suffer from this, must be assisted to bring back their conscious thoughts. Research has shown that task performance is affected by motivation. By providing performance incentives it decreases the estimate of unconscious processes (Philiph M.Merikle:94-113, 1999).Process dissociation has shown that when performing a task following exclusion instructions, one is not supposed to use perceived or remembered information in their responses. Performance here is determined by a number of times participant fail to comply

This can clearly explain how unconscious people behaves

According to Maslow, unconscious motives and behaviors can be complicated to ones life and to prevent this, it is always important to realize that unconscious motives exists and know how to control them. Psychoanalysis has shown that some people, for example in work place may be performing poorly than others because they posses unconscious feeling of aggression towards authority figures in their work place.

Conscious  motivation. Being conscious is to be aware of ones environment and existence, thoughts and sensation.-on the other hand conscious motivation is relatively different from unconscious motivation. New studies by neuroscientists, philosophers and psychologists studied to try and understand emotion and its contribution to the functioning of consciousness. When we are conscious about something we are able to get into a position where we can solve our problem and at the sane time come up with a better solution (TroyA.W 96-116).

Process dissociation procedure that has been used to experiment the effect of motivation in both conscious and unconscious processes to task performance, has clearly shown that, when provided with incentives, the results for the perception task indicated that incentives increased the participants’ ability to exclude previously presented information, which in turn both increased the estimate of conscious processes (Ernest R. Hilgard, 90-113)

Performance in conscious motivation is measured by giving out inclusive instructions; participants are asked to use their perceived or remembered information to give out their results. Performance is measured by a number of times they comply with instructions.

From the findings of both conscious and unconscious motivation it can be concluded that process dissociation procedure is relatively immune to influences of motivation when used with a memory task. Behavior orientation is one of the defining characteristic of human beings. From the research on conscious and unconscious motivation it has been indicated how psychological mechanisms are involved in the planning and execution of motivated social behavior (Kipling D. Williams, Social Motivation, 34-45).

About the Author

The author has academic writing experience of over ten years. She holds a PHD in education from Harvard. She has been assisting students in writing professional academic papers including thesis, dissertations, research papers and term papers. Bravia Research Papers

Need a Speech Coach? Vegas resident World Champion Darren LaCroix

How to Make Measuring a Little Bit Sexier

Question: What words do people use to describe performance measurement?

Answer: Boring. Dull. Bureaucratic. Effort. Nerdy. Challenging. Threatening. Irrelevant. Failure. Fad.

Words we’d rather hear describing measurement: Curious. Insightful. Relieving. Motivating. Focusing. Priorities. Improvement. Success. Achievement.

For many reasons, people are more likely going to have negative feelings about measuring performance. And before you’re going to win their enthusiasm to take measuring performance seriously, you have to spin those feelings around.

A great way to do that is to give them a very different experience of what measuring performance is all about. And a successful “run on the board” can do just that.

Forget about trying to convince everyone that measurement is important.  Forget about telling people their current measures suck. Forget about designing that corporate-wide, top-down, aligned-to-strategy measurement framework. Think small, think fast, think impact!

Somewhere in your organisation you’ll be able to find an opportunity to put practical performance measures to work to make a fast impact. You might already know of one manager who needs no convincing that measuring matters. Or maybe you know of a recurring problem one team has, that everyone knows about, like the maintenance team taking too long, or the IT team handling help desk calls badly. Think laterally about where an opportunity might be.

Then go and talk to the people who own that opportunity. Ask them if they’d appreciate some help to solve the problem, to get to the bottom of it and nail it once and for all. Don’t ask them if they need some performance measures! Yes, you’ll create and use a few performance measures to help them fix the problem, but the emphasis has to be on solving the problem.

It’s going to be easier for you if the people who own the opportunity are keen. If not, keep looking for other opportunities. You’re after a small, fast run on the board that shows the impact that comes from using measures to assess, diagnose and fix problems people don’t want to have.

When you find your opportunity, treat it like you would a small, pilot project. Focus on a single result you will improve, and schedule it such that inside of 2 or 3 months, you’ve created a few useful measures, and used those measures to diagnose the problem, to find a solution to the problem, and so show improvement in the end result.

And there’s one more thing, something weirdly powerful. Write up the project as a story. No, no, no – don’t use your project documentation template! Create something more akin to a scrapbook, with photos, quotes, anecdotes, learnings, mistakes, funny antics. Make it as human as possible.

And show and tell this story to anyone to whom you’d like to give a different experience of measuring performance.

About the Author

Stacey Barr is a specialist in organisational performance measurement, helping corporate planners, business analysts and performance measurement officers confidently facilitate their organisation to create and use meaningful performance measures with lots of buy-in. Sign up for Stacey’s free email tips at www.staceybarr.com/facilitators and receive a complimentary copy of her renowned e-book “202 Tips for Performance Measurement”.
WANT TO USE THIS ARTICLE? Feel free to use this article in your own publications, so long as you include this info at the end: Stacey Barr is a specialist in organisational performance measurement, helping corporate planners, business analysts and performance measurement officers confidently facilitate their organisation to create and use meaningful performance measures with lots of buy-in. Sign up for Stacey’s free email tips at www.staceybarr.com/facilitators and receive a complimentary copy of her renowned e-book “202 Tips for Performance Measurement”.

Funny yet inspirational quotes?

I play for a ringette team (like hockey, played on ice…etc) and I am responsible for coming up with inspirational notes before every game during our tournament this weekend. However I would like to be creative and throw a twist in, so while being inspirational and motivational, also include humor (for some, if not all of our games).

I like your idea of including some humor in the quotes you give your teammates before the games. Here are some quotes I hope might fit the bill….

“Always remember Goliath was a 40 point favorite over David.”– Shug Jordan

“The other teams could make trouble for us if they win.” Yogi Berra

“You never lose a game if the opponent doesn’t score.”
– Darrell Royal

It’s always too soon to quit. Norman Vincent Peale

It’s not whether you get knocked down; it’s whether you get up.
Vince Lombardi

It’s what you learn after you ‘know it all’ that counts.
John Wooden: Funny Sports Quotes

People often say that motivation doesn’t last. Well, neither does bathing-that’s why we recommend it daily. Zig Ziglar

Some of the world’s greatest feats were accomplished by people not smart enough to know they were impossible. Doug Larson

Nobody who ever gave his best regretted it. George Halas

There’s no substitute for guts. Paul Bear Bryant

You don’t have to fear defeat if you believe it may reveal powers that you didn’t know you possessed. Napoleon Hill

You get the best out of others when you give the best of yourself. Harry Firestone

Toughness is in the soul and spirit, not in muscle.
Alex Karras

Why did I want to win? because I didn’t want to lose! Max Schmelling

Mental attitude is more important than mental capacity. Walter Dill Scott

Most people achieved their greatest success one step beyond what looked like their greatest failure. Brian Tracy

Concentration is the ability to think about absolutely nothing when it is absolutely necessary. Ray Knight

“Half the game is mental; the other half is being mental.” Jim McKenny

“Do not let ‘what you cannot do’ interfere with what you can do.” – John Wooden

“Whoever said, ‘It’s not whether you win or lose that counts,’ probably lost.” – Martina Navratilova (American tennis player)

“Ask not what your teammates can do for you. Ask what you can do for your teammates.” – Earvin “Magic” Johnson

“The real glory is being knocked to your knees and then coming back. That’s real glory.” – Vince Lombardi

“Always and never are two words you should always remember never to use.”– Wendell Johnson

If you think you are too small to be effective, you have never been in the dark with a mosquito. – Unknown

If you don’t know where you are going, you might wind up someplace else. – Yogi Berra

It takes less time to do things right than to explain why you did it wrong. – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

“Too much of a good thing can be wonderful.” – Mae West

Luck is what you have left over after you give 100 percent. – Unknown

Speaking of “luck,” here’s wishing you and your team the very best of it this weekend!

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The Daily Motivation – GIVE A STRANGER A SMILE

Short quotes inspire us for action. Life without motivation is like we are sitting in a dark room. People often work like a robot and do not dare to dream big. God has given us life to do extraordinary tasks. We all have qualities and capabilities to achieve anything. The only thing which required is motivation.

So here’s are some of my favorite short quotes to let you feel the magic of motivation i life-

“For every dark night there is a brighter day.” -Tupac Shakur

This short quote describes how we should take our life. Good time and bad time keeps on coming and going. There is always bright day after dark night. So you should be optimistic and think the positive side. After your hard work, success is bound to come. So never give-up and keep on putting your best.

“All that we are is the result of what we have thought.” -Budha

Whatever we are is the result of our thought. All the achievement and success is the result of our attitude and our power of thinking. All the miracles take place in mind, so think high and work hard. Do not take rest until you achieve your goals.

“Our truest life is when we are in dreams awake.” -Henry David Thoreau

Dreams give us a vision to work on. A person without dreams is as good as animal. So the best in life comes when you watch big dreams with open eyes. Dreams keep us inspired. All the big achievers of world are big dreamer. They dream and work hard to convert them into reality.

“Impossible is a word to be found only in the dictionary of fools.” -Unknown

Nothing is impossible. Every task needs passion, positive energy and will power. Long time ago, nobody could have thought of airplane, but today it is truth. We can fly in air. So impossible is nothing. We have reached to moon. We all have all the powers of doing anything we wish for. We just need to wake up and motivate ourselves to realize our hidden qualities.

“Our greatest glory is not in never falling but in rising every time you fall.” -Anonymous

Failure and success is the part of life. Many people give up after facing failure. They should not do it. You must get up and try again with your double level of energy, because you have gained more experience. Never forget that the failures are the pillar of success.

So do your best to achieve the best with motivational short quotes. Life is great teacher. Learn from it and be a real winner.

Read more inspiring lessons at Short Quotes and Confidence Quotes.

where can i find a website that i can get free daily motivational emails for teens?

i want to subscribe get free daily inspiring and motivating emails for teens…like quotes, stories, poems, pics, etc.?

I admire your motives, but this site is full of insolent insubordinate teens begging for proxies to access MySpace while in school on school computers and who have no respect for the authority of their school or of their parents. I cannot imagine youngsters like these even reading the type of e-mail you describe

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My HCG Tracker: A Motivational and Inspirational Companion for the HCG Protocol $10.77 My HCG Tracker is a must-have for participants during the HCG Diet Protocol. Along with motivational quotes to inspire you each day, My HCG Tracker helps you to easily track the foods you eat at each meal. This convenient and simple tracking allows you to see trends that may be causing your weight to stall or gain, an awareness which can ultimately increase your total weight loss….

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Motivational Quotes & Weight Loss Tips

Most Weight Loss In A Week – How To Raise Your Metabolism Naturally

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Most weight loss in a week? Learning how to raise your metabolism naturally requires you to not only change your daily routine but your way of thinking as well. Most of us at one point or another have tried to lose the weight but have failed time and time again. Is it really our fault or is there something else going on? Well the real answer is that most methods out there fail us, we try hard and it doesn’t work so why should we blame ourselves? We need an effective system that will work for us and this is really, really hard to find nowadays. However, more and more people are getting huge results with 1 method that does work, called the Every Other Day Diet, which teaches:

- Motivational Quotes To Lose Weight
- Get Rid Of Weight Fast
- Ways Of Reducing Weight
- I Want To Lose Weight Fast
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Most weight loss in a week? Learn how to raise your metabolism naturally!

About the Author

Author: Destiny Bank

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Inspirational Quotes

5 Steps to a Booming Personal Training Facebook Fan Page or Group

If you are reading this then you are probably a personal trainer using Facebook and there is a good chance you already have a group or fan page for your business.

If you don’t yet then you should (I will explain why below) and if you do are you using it to its full potential to communicate with your clients to maximize retention and is it growing rapidly in numbers acting like a lead generating machine?

Did you know the average PT has only 100 or less people in their group yet there are PTs out there with 1000s? So what is their secret how did they grow their group to such large numbers and how do they make it look so easy?

To learn the secrets and discover the answers keep reading below…

I was speaking to a fellow Personal Trainer last week who has 1500 people in his group and I was very curious as to his secret so I simply asked him and this was his response. He said the number one key for having a successful group Jason is simple and I can explain it in 5 parts, but before I do there is one thing that you must know and understand first. I said yes go on please, please… He said the number one key to having a successful group is to use ALL of the features to their full potential with content rich information.

I asked him to explain and this is what he said:

Step 1:

Use video.
This is my favourite he said because this has more dimensions than any other feature. I said what do you mean? He continued well there are many things you can use video for; the most powerful are the following:

Testimonials: every few weeks I take a 60 second video on my digital camera of one of my clients commented on the benefits of my training the results they achieve and why they would recommend it and post it on my group for the world to see.

Profile: On my group I have a 60 second video profile of my services, benefits, credentials and what I have to offer, I like to update this every month or two, you know to get my new hair cut

Action Vids: Short videos of me personally training clients and taking groups, I believe this is very powerful if you do this regularly perhaps 2-5 x each week I simply have one of my client’s record then swap.

Exercise technique: For all of my clients I like to have an exercise of the week in which I record and post on my group or even a nutritional tip.

Weekly update: Lastly I like to have a weekly update just 2 or 3 minutes of congratulating client’s what’s happening in my business upcoming events etc…

I thought to myself wow these are great strategies and would really add great value to the page. By now some of you may be thinking well yes I already have heard of most these things but do you do them??

Step 2:

Photos.
These are really powerful because when you tag someone all their FB friends see the picture and become interested in what you and your group have to offer.

Group photos: when you have large numbers in your group training sessions take a pic and tag everyone if there are 20 people and they each have 200 friends that means 4000 people potentially can see that picture.

Achievement pics: When a client achieves a great goal, have a photo with them and post it on your group.

Before and after pics: These as you know acts as social proof of how great a trainer you are.

Events: be sure to get many fun photos also to show that you are not just all work but play as well.

Step 3:
Status updates, discussions and links.

Status Updates: By maintaining communication with existing clients, past clients and prospects you will stay fresh in their mind. He said Jason this is probably the most important aspect for consistency I post daily comments including: motivational quotes, exercise tips, nutrition tips, congratulations to clients on achievements and finish this sentence to maximize involvement and ask question to make it like a community so my clients can communicate with each other, so you see he said it’s like a society with social aspects as well.

Discussion board: Although it seems a lot of people don’t respond to these people still read them and it adds value and content to your page I use written testimonials from clients, articles I write and success stories on a regular basis to complete this part.

Links: occasionally I will to fill up the page add related websites about exercise, health and nutrition as an extra resource for members.

Step 4:
Events.

Events a great way to reward your clients for their hard work and also to have them interact with each other, this is amazing for retention plus when everyone can bring a friend you have just gained numerous referrals.

I like to have regular social events and post them on my group, it might be fun Sunday session or BBQ at the beach or it might be active like rock climbing or bowling either way by having an event each month really allows me to grow my business and group fast.

Step 5:
Referrals.

Using the above 4 strategies and a referral system has really been my secret to achieving such a successful business and group he said to me, so I asked him how does he usually gain referrals?

Well Jason once you have a content rich site, even if you only have 10 members start on the 1st four strategies immediately and watch it grow.

But to really sky rocket the numbers this is what I do.

I ask all my clients in sessions to join my group or invite by email then ask them to invite all their Facebook friends and when they do I will give them 2 free PT sessions valued at $100, I said what a great idea.

He said then the key is when you are online catching them on Facebook and ask them there and then whilst they are online to invite their friends and you can direct them to do so.

After he shared all these wonderful ideas with me I could now understand why he had over 1500 members and 4 PTs working for him.
He said one last thing to me… He said Jason these techniques are very simple and are only effective when you use them. There is a difference between knowing and doing, most people know these strategies but don’t do them. The person who does these strategies will be the successful PT the ones who really want to be successful will do this and be successful.

So there you have it 5 amazing steps full of wisdom by an already very successful PT and the strategies he used to build a successful group and business.

If you would like any more info or for your 2 free 30 minute consultations to generate more leads, build you Facebook group and grow your PT business simply contact me on 0417984594 or email livefreehealth@hotmail.com now.

http://www.facebook.com/topic.php?uid=153668853824&topic=11523#/group.php?gid=153668853824

About the Author

Motivational Quotes for Weight Loss

Let your food be your medicine and your medicine be your food. Nature heals; the physician is only natures assistant. Hippocrates

The quote from Hippocrates, considered the Father of Medicine, sums up the importance of nutrition.  It is doubtful any modern physician would agree with him but findings consistently reveal that if we eat right, we have the foundation for great health.

The first thing you can do to improve your nutrition is to understand what you are eating. Don’t change a thing, just read labels. The labels on the food you buy and consume.  My recommendation is that you not buy anything in a box or a can. A second recommendation is to not eat anything you could not eat raw.  Now meat was probably once eaten just that way and I would say fish, poultry and red meat should be eaten cooked to at least a 140 degree internal temperature.  But, plants should be able to be eaten raw. If you can’t eat a plant food raw, I would eat it very sparingly. It falls into the same category with meat.

Number two, Educate yourself.  Don’t allow yourself to assume anything.  Learn about the digestion and absorption of food.  What do you need to eat?  How much?  How often?  Do you know the meaning of words like macro nutrient or micro nutrient?  Visit books, websites and articles to learn more.  There is a cost to knowledge – either you learn the language of food science and take the time to read and learn first hand or you hire someone to help you. That is another problem.

Number three, decide what you like and from that, what you should eat.  There is nothing wrong with liking sweet tasting food. There is something wrong if that is all you want to eat.  Figure out what is good for you that you like and that provides you with a great diet. Research various diets before you try one. Your diet is your eating plan for your life. What do you know about Macrobiotics, Vegetarian, Cleansing, Living foods and other diets. Learn basic nutrition information.

Once you have done that, you need to decide what you intend. Your intent is what you want to see happen over a period of time.  Intentions are very big picture and are inspirational visions for your future life.  What do you intend to happen with your eating plan?  Once you know your intent, you can set some goals consistent with your intent. Along with goals you will need some action steps. Your Intention and your affirmation of your intent need to be written down and associated with a mind body practice. For instance, you might stand and while raising your arms overhead, you might repeat aloud your intent followed by your affirmation.

If you want to know more about diets, affirmations and intentions, Bruce L Bair suggests you look at his Personal Empowerment Plan that incorporates the Circle of Life Coaching process. Simply click on the link http://budurl.com/CircleLifeCoach and learn more about how Bruce may be able to help you. Using the circle, the most ancient symbol known to man, Bruce will coach you through a process individually or in groups. Click on the link to learn more about applying these principles to your own life.

Will Obama Bankrupt America? Self-Defense; More Desperate Women in Porn and Stripping

Ethanol fuel

Chemistry

Structure of ethanol molecule. All bonds are single bonds

Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant by photosynthesis.

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light C6H12O6 + 6 O2

During ethanol fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH+ 2 CO2 + heat

During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat:

C2H5OH + 3 O2 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + heat

After doubling the combustion reaction because two molecules of ethanol are produced for each glucose molecule, and adding all three reactions together, there are equal numbers of each type of molecule on each side of the equation, and the net reaction for the overall production and consumption of ethanol is just:

light heat

The heat of the combustion of ethanol is used to drive the piston in the engine by expanding heated gases. It can be said that sunlight is used to run the engine.

Glucose itself is not the only substance in the plant that is fermented. The simple sugar fructose also undergoes fermentation. Three other compounds in the plant can be fermented after breaking them up by hydrolysis into the glucose or fructose molecules that compose them. Starch and cellulose are molecules that are strings of glucose molecules, and sucrose (ordinary table sugar) is a molecule of glucose bonded to a molecule of fructose. The energy to create fructose in the plant ultimately comes from the metabolism of glucose created by photosynthesis, and so sunlight also provides the energy generated by the fermentation of these other molecules.

Ethanol may also be produced industrially from ethene (ethylene). Addition of water to the double bond converts ethene to ethanol:

CH2=CH2 + H2O CH3CH2OH

This is done in the presence of an acid which catalyzes the reaction, but is not consumed. The ethene is produced from petroleum by steam cracking.

When ethanol is burned in the atmosphere rather than in pure oxygen, other chemical reactions occur with different components of the atmosphere such as N2. This leads to the production of nitrous oxides NOx , a major air pollutant.

Sources

Main article: Energy crop

Sugar cane harvest

Cornfield in South Africa

Switchgrass

Ethanol is a renewable energy source because the energy is generated by using a resource, sunlight, which is naturally replenished. Creation of ethanol starts with photosynthesis causing a feedstock, such as sugar cane or corn, to grow. These feedstocks are processed into ethanol.

About 5% of the ethanol produced in the world in 2003 was actually a petroleum product. It is made by the catalytic hydration of ethylene with sulfuric acid as the catalyst. It can also be obtained via ethylene or acetylene, from calcium carbide, coal, oil gas, and other sources. Two million tons of petroleum-derived ethanol are produced annually. The principal suppliers are plants in the United States, Europe, and South Africa. Petroleum derived ethanol (synthetic ethanol) is chemically identical to bio-ethanol and can be differentiated only by radiocarbon dating.

Bio-ethanol is usually obtained from the conversion of carbon based feedstock. Agricultural feedstocks are considered renewable because they get energy from the sun using photosynthesis, provided that all minerals required for growth (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) are returned to the land. Ethanol can be produced from a variety of feedstocks such as sugar cane, bagasse, miscanthus, sugar beet, sorghum, grain sorghum, switchgrass, barley, hemp, kenaf, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, sunflower, fruit, molasses, corn, stover, grain, wheat, straw, cotton, other biomass, as well as many types of cellulose waste and harvestings, whichever has the best well-to-wheel assessment.

An alternative process to produce bio-ethanol from algae is being developed by the company Algenol. Rather than grow algae and then harvest and ferment it the algae grow in sunlight and produce ethanol directly which is removed without killing the algae. It is claimed the process can produce 6000 gallons per acre per year compared with 400 gallons for corn production.

Currently, the first generation processes for the production of ethanol from corn use only a small part of the corn plant: the corn kernels are taken from the corn plant and only the starch, which represents about 50% of the dry kernel mass, is transformed into ethanol. Two types of second generation processes are under development. The first type uses enzymes and yeast to convert the plant cellulose into ethanol while the second type uses pyrolysis to convert the whole plant to either a liquid bio-oil or a syngas. Second generation processes can also be used with plants such as grasses, wood or agricultural waste material such as straw.

Production process

See also: problems associated with corn-derived ethanol

The basic steps for large scale production of ethanol are: microbial (yeast) fermentation of sugars, distillation, dehydration (requirements vary, see Ethanol fuel mixtures, below), and denaturing (optional). Prior to fermentation, some crops require saccharification or hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch into sugars. Saccharification of cellulose is called cellulolysis (see cellulosic ethanol). Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar.

Fermentation

Main article: Ethanol fermentation

Ethanol is produced by microbial fermentation of the sugar. Microbial fermentation will currently only work directly with sugars. Two major components of plants, starch and cellulose, are both made up of sugars, and can in principle be converted to sugars for fermentation. Currently, only the sugar (e.g. sugar cane) and starch (e.g. corn) portions can be economically converted. However, there is much activity in the area of cellulosic ethanol, where the cellulose part of a plant is broken down to sugars and subsequently converted to ethanol.

Distillation

Ethanol plant in West Burlington, Iowa

Ethanol plant in Sertozinho, Brazil.

For the ethanol to be usable as a fuel, water must be removed. Most of the water is removed by distillation, but the purity is limited to 95-96% due to the formation of a low-boiling water-ethanol azeotrope. The 95.6% m/m (96.5% v/v) ethanol, 4.4% m/m (3.5% v/v) water mixture may be used as a fuel alone, but unlike anhydrous ethanol, is immiscible in gasoline, so the water fraction is typically removed in further treatment in order to burn in combination with gasoline in gasoline engines.

Dehydration

There are basically five dehydration processes to remove the water from an azeotropic ethanol/water mixture. The first process, used in many early fuel ethanol plants, is called azeotropic distillation and consists of adding benzene or cyclohexane to the mixture. When these components are added to the mixture, it forms a heterogeneous azeotropic mixture in vapor-liquid-liquid equilibrium, which when distilled produces anhydrous ethanol in the column bottom, and a vapor mixture of water and cyclohexane/benzene. When condensed, this becomes a two-phase liquid mixture. Another early method, called extractive distillation, consists of adding a ternary component which will increase ethanol’s relative volatility. When the ternary mixture is distilled, it will produce anhydrous ethanol on the top stream of the column.

With increasing attention being paid to saving energy, many methods have been proposed that avoid distillation all together for dehydration. Of these methods, a third method has emerged and has been adopted by the majority of modern ethanol plants. This new process uses molecular sieves to remove water from fuel ethanol. In this process, ethanol vapor under pressure passes through a bed of molecular sieve beads. The bead’s pores are sized to allow absorption of water while excluding ethanol. After a period of time, the bed is regenerated under vacuum to remove the absorbed water. Two beds are used so that one is available to absorb water while the other is being regenerated. This dehydration technology can account for energy saving of 3,000 btus/gallon (840 kJ/l) compared to earlier azeotropic distillation.

Technology

Ethanol-based engines

Ethanol is most commonly used to power automobiles, though it may be used to power other vehicles, such as farm tractors, boats and airplanes. Ethanol (E100) consumption in an engine is approximately 51% higher than for gasoline since the energy per unit volume of ethanol is 34% lower than for gasoline. However, the higher compression ratios in an ethanol-only engine allow for increased power output and better fuel economy than could be obtained with lower compression ratios. In general, ethanol-only engines are tuned to give slightly better power and torque output than gasoline-powered engines. In flexible fuel vehicles, the lower compression ratio requires tunings that give the same output when using either gasoline or hydrated ethanol. For maximum use of ethanol’s benefits, a much higher compression ratio should be used, which would render that engine unsuitable for gasoline use. When ethanol fuel availability allows high-compression ethanol-only vehicles to be practical, the fuel efficiency of such engines should be equal to or greater than current gasoline engines. Current high compression ethanol-only engine designs are approximately 20-30% less fuel efficient than their gasoline-only counterparts.

A 2004 MIT study and an earlier paper published by the Society of Automotive Engineers identify a method to exploit the characteristics of fuel ethanol substantially better than mixing it with gasoline. The method presents the possibility of leveraging the use of alcohol to achieve definite improvement over the cost-effectiveness of hybrid electric. The improvement consists of using dual-fuel direct-injection of pure alcohol (or the azeotrope or E85) and gasoline, in any ratio up to 100% of either, in a turbocharged, high compression-ratio, small-displacement engine having performance similar to an engine having twice the displacement. Each fuel is carried separately, with a much smaller tank for alcohol. The high-compression (which increases efficiency) engine will run on ordinary gasoline under low-power cruise conditions. Alcohol is directly injected into the cylinders (and the gasoline injection simultaneously reduced) only when necessary to suppress nock such as when significantly accelerating. Direct cylinder injection raises the already high octane rating of ethanol up to an effective 130. The calculated over-all reduction of gasoline use and CO2 emission is 30%. The consumer cost payback time shows a 4:1 improvement over turbo-diesel and a 5:1 improvement over hybrid. In addition, the problems of water absorption into pre-mixed gasoline (causing phase separation), supply issues of multiple mix ratios and cold-weather starting are avoided.

Ethanol’s higher octane rating allows an increase of an engine’s compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In one study, complex engine controls and increased exhaust gas recirculation allowed a compression ratio of 19.5 with fuels ranging from neat ethanol to E50. Thermal efficiency up to approximately that for a diesel was achieved. This would result in the MPG (miles per gallon) of a dedicated ethanol vehicle to be about the same as one burning gasoline.

Since 1989 there have also been ethanol engines based on the diesel principle operating in Sweden. They are used primarily in city buses, but also in distribution trucks and waste collectors. The engines, made by Scania, have a modified compression ratio, and the fuel (known as ED95) used is a mix of 93.6 % ethanol and 3.6 % ignition improver, and 2.8% denaturants. The ignition improver makes it possible for the fuel to ignite in the diesel combustion cycle. It is then also possible to use the energy efficiency of the diesel principle with ethanol. These engines have been used in the United Kingdom by Reading Transport but the use of bioethanol fuel is now being phased out.why

Engine cold start during the winter

The Brazilian 2008 Honda Civic flex-fuel has outside direct access to the secondary reservoir gasoline tank in the front right side, the corresponding fuel filler door is shown by the arrow.

High ethanol blends present a problem to achieve enough vapor pressure for the fuel to evaporate and spark the ignition during cold weather (since ethanol tends to increase fuel enthalpy of vaporization). When vapor pressure is below 45 kPa starting a cold engine becomes difficult. In order to avoid this problem at temperatures below 11 Celsius (59 F), and to reduce ethanol higher emissions during cold weather, both the US and the European markets adopted E85 as the maximum blend to be used in their flexible fuel vehicles, and they are optimized to run at such a blend. At places with harsh cold weather, the ethanol blend in the US has a seasonal reduction to E70 for these very cold regions, though it is still sold as E85. At places where temperatures fall below -12 C (10 F) during the winter, it is recommended to install an engine heater system, both for gasoline and E85 vehicles. Sweden has a similar seasonal reduction, but the ethanol content in the blend is reduced to E75 during the winter months.

Brazilian flex fuel vehicles can operate with ethanol mixtures up to E100, which is hydrous ethanol (with up to 4% water), which causes vapor pressure to drop faster as compared to E85 vehicles. As a result, Brazilian flex vehicles are built with a small secondary gasoline reservoir located near the engine. During a cold start pure gasoline is injected to avoid starting problems at low temperatures. This provision is particularly necessary for users of Brazil’s southern and central regions, where temperatures normally drop below 15 Celsius (59 F) during the winter. An improved flex engine generation was launched in 2009 that eliminates the need for the secondary gas storage tank. In March 2009 Volkswagen do Brasil launched the Polo E-Flex, the first Brazilian flex fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start.

Ethanol fuel mixtures

For more details on this topic, see Common ethanol fuel mixtures.

Hydrated ethanol gasoline type C price table for use in Brazil

To avoid engine stall due to “slugs” of water in the fuel lines interrupting fuel flow, the fuel must exist as a single phase. The fraction of water that an ethanol-gasoline fuel can contain without phase separation increases with the percentage of ethanol.. This shows, for example, that E30 can have up to about 2% water. If there is more than about 71% ethanol, the remainder can be any proportion of water or gasoline and phase separation will not occur. However, the fuel mileage declines with increased water content. The increased solubility of water with higher ethanol content permits E30 and hydrated ethanol to be put in the same tank since any combination of them always results in a single phase. Somewhat less water is tolerated at lower temperatures. For E10 it is about 0.5% v/v at 70 F and decreases to about 0.23% v/v at -30 F.

In many countries cars are mandated to run on mixtures of ethanol. Brazil requires cars be suitable for a 25% ethanol blend, and has required various mixtures between 22% and 25% ethanol, since of July 2007 25% is required. The United States allows up to 10% blends, and some states require this (or a smaller amount) in all gasoline sold. Other countries have adopted their own requirements. Beginning with the model year 1999, an increasing number of vehicles in the world are manufactured with engines which can run on any fuel from 0% ethanol up to 100% ethanol without modification. Many cars and light trucks (a class containing minivans, SUVs and pickup trucks) are designed to be flexible-fuel vehicles (also called dual-fuel vehicles). In older model years, their engine systems contained alcohol sensors in the fuel and/or oxygen sensors in the exhaust that provide input to the engine control computer to adjust the fuel injection to achieve stochiometric (no residual fuel or free oxygen in the exhaust) air-to-fuel ratio for any fuel mix. In newer models, the alcohol sensors have been removed, with the computer using only oxygen and airflow sensor feedback to estimate alcohol content. The engine control computer can also adjust (advance) the ignition timing to achieve a higher output without pre-ignition when it predicts that higher alcohol percentages are present in the fuel being burned. This method is backed up by advanced knock sensors – used in most high performance gasoline engines regardless of whether they’re designed to use ethanol or not – that detect pre-ignition and detonation.

Fuel economy

In theory, all fuel-driven vehicles have a fuel economy (measured as miles per US gallon, or liters per 100 km) that is directly proportional to the fuel’s energy content. In reality, there are many other variables that come in to play that affect the performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine. Ethanol contains approx. 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, and therefore in theory, burning pure ethanol in a vehicle will result in a 34% reduction in miles per US gallon, given the same fuel economy, compared to burning pure gasoline. Since ethanol has a higher octane rating, the engine can be made more efficient by raising its compression ratio. In fact using a variable turbocharger, the compression ratio can be optimized for the fuel being used, making fuel economy almost constant for any blend. . For E10 (10% ethanol and 90% gasoline), the effect is small (~3%) when compared to conventional gasoline, and even smaller (1-2%) when compared to oxygenated and reformulated blends. However, for E85 (85% ethanol), the effect becomes significant. E85 will produce lower mileage than gasoline, and will require more frequent refueling. Actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles resulted 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline. The EPA-rated mileage of current USA flex-fuel vehicles should be considered when making price comparisons, but it must be noted that E85 is a high performance fuel, with an octane rating of about 104, and should be compared to premium. In one estimate the US retail price for E85 ethanol is 2.62 US dollar per gallon or 3.71 dollar corrected for energy equivalency compared to a gallon of gasoline priced at 3.03 dollar. Brazilian cane ethanol (100%) is priced at 3.88 dollar against 4.91 dollar for E25 (as July 2007).

Consumer production systems

While biodiesel production systems have been marketed to home and business users for many years, commercialized ethanol production systems designed for end-consumer use have lagged in the marketplace. In 2008, two different companies announced home-scale ethanol production systems. The AFS125 Advanced Fuel System from Allard Research and Development is capable of producing both ethanol and biodiesel in one machine, while the E-100 MicroFueler from E-Fuel Corporation is dedicated to ethanol only.

Experience by country

The world’s top ethanol fuel producers in 2008 were the United States with 9.0 billion U.S. liquid gallons (bg) and Brazil (6.47 bg), accounting for 89% of world production of 17.33 billion US gallons (65.6 million liters). Strong incentives, coupled with other industry development initiatives, are giving rise to fledgling ethanol industries in countries such as Canada, China, Thailand, Colombia, India, Australia, and some Central American countries. Nevertheless, ethanol has yet to make a dent in world oil consumption of approximately 4000 million tonnes/yr (84 million barrels/day) in 2006.

Total Annual Ethanol Production (All Grades)

by Country (2004-2006)

Top 15 countries

(Millions of U.S. liquid gallons per year)

Annual Fuel Ethanol Production

by Country (2007-2008)

Top 15 countries/blocks

(Millions of U.S. liquid gallons per year)

World

rank

Country

2006

2005

2004

World

rank

Country/Region

2008

2007

1

 United States

4,855

4,264

3,535

1

 United States

9,000.0

6,498.6

2

 Brazil

4,491

4,227

3,989

2

 Brazil

6,472.2

5,019.2

3

 China

1,017

1,004

964

3

 European Union

733.6

570.3

4

 India

502

449

462

4

 China

501.9

486.0

5

 France

251

240

219

5

 Canada

237.7

211.3

6

 Germany

202

114

71

6

 Thailand

89.8

79.2

7

 Russia

171

198

198

7

 Colombia

79.3

74.9

8

 Canada

153

61

61

8

 India

66.0

52.8

9

 Spain

122

93

79

9

Central America

n/a

39.6

10

 South Africa

102

103

110

10

 Australia

26.4

26.4

11

 Thailand

93

79

74

11

 Turkey

n/a

15.8

12

 United Kingdom

74

92

106

12

 Pakistan

n/a

9.2

13

 Ukraine

71

65

66

13

 Peru

n/a

7.9

14

 Poland

66

58

53

14

 Argentina

n/a

5.2

15

 Saudi Arabia

52

32

79

15

 Paraguay

n/a

4.7

World Total

13,489

12,150

10,770

World Total

17,335.29

13,101.7

Brazil

Main articles: Ethanol fuel in Brazil and History of ethanol fuel in Brazil

Brazil has ethanol fuel available throughout the country. A typical Petrobras filling station at So Paulo with dual fuel service, marked A for alcohol (ethanol) and G for gasoline.

Typical Brazilian “flex” models from several carmakers, that run on any blend of ethanol and gasoline, from E20-E25 gasohol to E100 ethanol fuel.

The Honda CG 150 Titan Mix was launched in the Brazilian market in 2009 and became the first flex-fuel motorcycle sold in the world.

Brazil has the largest and most successful bio-fuel programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and it is considered to have the world’s first sustainable biofuels economy. In 2006 Brazilian ethanol provided 18% of the country’s road transport sector fuel consumption needs, and by April 2008, more than 50% of fuel consumption for the gasoline market. As a result of the increasing use of ethanol, together with the exploitation of domestic deep water oil sources, Brazil, which years ago had to import a large share of the petroleum needed for domestic consumption, in 2006 reached complete self-sufficiency in oil supply.

Together, Brazil and the United States lead the industrial world in global ethanol production, accounting together for 70% of the world’s production and nearly 90% of ethanol used for fuel. In 2006 Brazil produced 16.3 billion liters (4.3 billion U.S. liquid gallons), which represents 33.3% of the world’s total ethanol production and 42% of the world’s ethanol used as fuel. Sugar cane plantations cover 3.6 million hectares of land for ethanol production, representing just 1% of Brazil’s arable land, with a productivity of 7,500 liters of ethanol per hectare, as compared with the U.S. maize ethanol productivity of 3,000 liters per hectare.

The ethanol industry in Brazil is more than 30 year-old and even though it is no longer subsidized, production and use of ethanol was stimulated through:

Low-interest loans for the construction of ethanol distilleries

Guaranteed purchase of ethanol by the state-owned oil company at a reasonable price

Retail pricing of neat ethanol so it is competitive if not slightly favorable to the gasoline-ethanol blend

Tax incentives provided during the 1980s to stimulate the purchase of neat ethanol vehicles.

Guaranteed purchase and price regulation were ended some years ago, with relatively positive results. In addition to these other policies, ethanol producers in the state of So Paulo established a research and technology transfer center that has been effective in improving sugar cane and ethanol yields.

There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. Since 1977 the government made mandatory to blend 20% of ethanol (E20) with gasoline (gasohol), requiring just a minor adjustment on regular gasoline motors. Today the mandatory blend is allowed to vary nationwide between 20% to 25% ethanol (E25) and it is used by all regular gasoline vehicles and flexible-fuel vehicles. The Brazilian car manufacturing industry developed flexible-fuel vehicles that can run on any proportion of gasoline and ethanol. Introduced in the market in 2003, these vehicles became a commercial success. By December 2009 the fleet of “flex” cars and light commercial vehicles had reached 9.35 million vehicles, and 183.3 thousand flex-fuel motorcycles. The ethanol-powered and “flex” vehicles, as they are popularly known, are manufactured to tolerate hydrated ethanol (E100), an azeotrope composed of 95.6% ethanol and 4.4% water.

The latest innovation within the Brazilian flexible-fuel technology is the development of flex-fuel motorcycles. The first flex motorcycle was launched to the market by Honda in March 2009. Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amaznia, the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US$2,700. During the first eight months after its market launch the CG 150 Titan Mix has sold 139,059 motorcycles, capturing a 10.6% market share, and ranking second in sales of new motorcycles in the Brazilian market by October 2009.

United States

 United States fuel ethanol

production and imports

(2001-2008)

(Millions of U.S. liquid gallons)

Year

Production

Imports

Demand

2001

1,770

n/a

n/a

2002

2,130

46

2,085

2003

2,800

61

2,900

2004

3,400

161

3,530

2005

3,904

135

4,049

2006

4,855

653

5,377

2007

6,500

450

6,847

2008

9,000

556

9,637

Note: Demand figures includes stocks change

and small exports in 2005

Main article: Ethanol fuel in the United States

The United States produces and consumes more ethanol fuel than any other country in the world. Ethanol use as fuel dates back to Henry Ford, who in 1896 designed his first car, the “Quadricycle” to run on pure ethanol. Then in 1908, he produced the famous Ford Model T capable of running on gasoline, ethanol or a combination of both. Ford continued to advocate for ethanol as fuel even during the prohibition.

Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. In 2007 Portland, Oregon, became the first city in the United States to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10% ethanol. As of January 2008, three states Missouri, Minnesota, and Hawaii require ethanol to be blended with gasoline motor fuel. Many cities also require ethanol blends due to non-attainment of federal air quality goals.

E85 FlexFuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009, Miami, Florida.

Several motor vehicle manufacturers, including Ford, Chrysler, and GM, sell flexible-fuel vehicles that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline all the way up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.

In the USA there are currently about 1,900 stations distributing ethanol, although most stations are in the corn belt area. One of the debated methods for distribution in the US is using existing oil pipelines, which raises concerns over corrosion. In any case, some companies proposed building a 1,700-mile pipeline to carry ethanol from the Midwest through Central Pennsylvania to New York.

The production of fuel ethanol from corn in the United States is controversial for a few reasons. Production of ethanol from corn is 5 to 6 times less efficient than producing it from sugarcane. Ethanol production from corn is highly dependent upon subsidies and it consumes a food crop to produce fuel. The subsidies paid to fuel blenders and ethanol refineries have often been cited as the reason for driving up the price of corn, and in farmers planting more corn and the conversion of considerable land to corn (maize) production which generally consumes more fertilizers and pesticides than many other land uses. This is at odds with the subsidies actually paid directly to farmers that are designed to take corn land out of production and pay farmers to plant grass and idle the land, often in conjunction with soil conservation programs, in an attempt to boost corn prices. Recent developments with cellulosic ethanol production and commercialization may allay some of these concerns. A theoretically much more efficient way of ethanol production has been suggested to use sugar beets which make about the same amount of ethanol as corn without using the corn food crop especially since sugar beets can grow in less tropical conditions than sugar cane.

Most of the ethanol consumed in the US is in the form of low blends with gasoline up to 10%. Shown a fuel pump in Maryland selling mandatory E10.

On October 2008 the first “biofuels corridor” was officially opened along I-65, a major interstate highway in the central United States. Stretching from northern Indiana to southern Alabama, this corridor consisting of more than 200 individual fueling stations makes it possible to drive a flex-fueled vehicle from Lake Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico without being further than a quarter tank worth of fuel from an E85 pump.

On April 23, 2009, the California Air Resources Board approved the specific rules and carbon intensity reference values for the California Low-Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) that will go into effect in January 1, 2011. During the consultation process there was controversy regarding the inclusion and modeling of indirect land use change effects. After the CARB’s ruling, among other criticisms, representatives of the US ethanol industry complained that this standard overstates the environmental effects of corn ethanol, and also criticized the inclusion of indirect effects of land-use changes as an unfair penalty to domestically produced corn ethanol because deforestation in the developing world is being tied to US ethanol production. The initial reference value set for 2011 for LCFS means that Mid-west corn ethanol will not meet the California standard unless current carbon intensity is reduced.

A similar controversy arose after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published on May 5, 2009, its notice of proposed rulemaking for the new Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS). The draft of the regulations was released for public comment during a 60-day period. EPA’s proposed regulations also included the carbon footprint from indirect land-use changes. On the same day, President Barack Obama signed a Presidential Directive with the aim to advance biofuels research and improve their commercialization. The Directive established a Biofuels Interagency Working Group comprise of three agencies, the Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Department of Energy. This group will developed a plan to increase flexible fuel vehicle use and assist in retail marketing efforts. Also they will coordinate infrastructure policies impacting the supply, secure transport, and distribution of biofuels. The group will also come up with policy ideas for increasing investment in next-generation fuels, such as cellulosic ethanol, and for reducing the environmental footprint of growing biofuels crops, particularly corn-based ethanol.

Europe

Production of Bioethanol in the

 European Union (GWh)

No

Country

2005

2006

1

 Germany

978

2,554

2

 Spain

1,796

2,382

3

 France

853

1,482

4

 Sweden

907

830

5

 Italy

47

759

6

 Poland

379

711

7

 Hungary

207

201

8

 Lithuania

47

107

9

 Netherlands

47

89

10

 Czech Republic

0

89

11

 Latvia

71

71

12

 Finland

77

0

27

Total

5,411

9,274

n.a. = not available

Consumption of Bioethanol in the

 European Union (GWh)

No

Country

2005

2006

2007

1

 Germany

1,682

3,544

3,408

2

 France

871

1,719

3,174

3

 Sweden

1,681

1,894

2,113

4

 Spain

1,314

1,332

1,310

5

 Poland

329

611

991

6

 United Kingdom

502

563

907

7

 Bulgaria

-

0

769

8

 Austria

0

0

254

9

 Slovakia

0

4

154

10

 Lithuania

10

64

135

11

 Hungary

28

136

107

12

 Netherlands

0

179

101

13

 Denmark

-

42

70

14

 Ireland

0

13

54

15

 Latvia

5

12

20

16

 Luxembourg

0

0

10

17

 Slovenia

0

2

9

18

 Czech Republic

0

13

2

19

 Italy

59

0

0

20

 Finland

0

10

n.a.

27

EU

6,481

10,138

13,563

The consumption of bioethanol is largest in Europe in Germany, Sweden, France and Spain. Europe produces equivalent to 90% of its consumption (2006). Germany produced ca 70% of its consumption, Spain 60% and Sweden 50% (2006). In Sweden there are 792 E85 filling stations and in France 131 E85 service stations with 550 more under construction.

On Monday, September 17, 2007 the first ethanol fuel pump was opened in Reykjavik, Iceland. This pump is the only one of its kind in Iceland. The fuel is imported by Brimborg, a Volvo dealer, as a pilot to see how ethanol fueled cars work in Iceland.

In The Netherlands regular petrol with no bio-additives is slowly being outphased, since EU-legislation has been passed that requires the fraction of nonmineral origin to become minimum 5.75% of the total fuel consumption volume in 2010. This can be realised by substitutions in diesel or in petrol of any biological source; or fuel sold in the form of pure biofuel. (2007) There are only a few gas stations where E85 is sold, which is an 85% ethanol, 15% petrol mix. Directly neighbouring country Germany is reported to have a much better biofuel infrastructure and offers both E85 and E50. Biofuel is taxed equally as regular fuel. However, fuel tanked abroad cannot be taxed and a recent payment receipt will in most cases suffice to prevent fines if customs check tank contents. (Authorities are aware of high taxation on fuels and cross-border fuel refilling is a well-known practice.)

An example of an ethanol powered bus. This is a Scania OmniCity which has been touring the United Kingdom, which does not use the fuel widely. A larger fleet of similar buses will enter service in Stockholm in 2008.

Sweden

Main article: Ethanol fuel in Sweden

Sweden is the leading country in Europe regarding the use of ethanol as fuel, though it has to import most of the ethanol. All Swedish gas stations are required by an act of parliament to offer at least one alternative fuel, and every fifth car in Stockholm now drives at least partially on alternative fuels, mostly ethanol. The number of bioethanol stations in Europe is highest in Sweden, with 1,200 stations and a fleet of 116 thousand flexi-fuel vehicles as of July 2008.

Stockholm will introduce a fleet of Swedish-made electric hybrid buses in its public transport system on a trial basis in 2008. These buses will use ethanol-powered internal-combustion engines and electric motors. The vehicles diesel engines will use ethanol.

In order to achieve a broader use of biofuels several government incentives were implemented. Ethanol, as the other biofuels, were exempted of both, the CO2 and energy taxes until 2009, resulting in a 30% price reduction at the pump of E85 fuel over gasoline. Furthermore, other demand side incentives for flexifuel vehicle owners include a USD 1,800 bonus to buyers of FFVs, exemption from the Stockholm congestion tax, up to 20% discount on auto insurance, free parking spaces in most of the largest cities, lower annual registration taxes, and a 20% tax reduction for flexifuel company cars. Also, a part of the program, the Swedish Government ruled that 25% of their vehicle purchases (excluding police, fire and ambulance vehicles) must be alternative fuel vehicles.; By the first months of 2008, this package of incentives resulted in sales of flexible-fuel cars representing 25% of new car sales.

Bioethanol stations

 European Union

Country

Stations

No/106

persons

 Sweden

1,200

131.26

 France

211

3.27

 Germany

193

2.35

 Switzerland

40

5.27

 Ireland

29

6.84

 United Kingdom

22

0.36

Asia

China

Main article: Bioenergy in China

China is promoting ethanol-based fuel on a pilot basis in five cities in its central and northeastern region, a move designed to create a new market for its surplus grain and reduce consumption of petroleum. The cities include Zhengzhou, Luoyang and Nanyang in central China’s Henan province, and Harbin and Zhaodong in Heilongjiang province, northeast China. Under the program, Henan will promote ethanol-based fuel across the province by the end of this year. Officials say the move is of great importance in helping to stabilize grain prices, raise farmers’ income and reducing petrol- induced air pollution.

Thailand

Thailand already use 10% ethanol (E10) widely on big scale on the local market. Beginning in 2008 Thailand started with the sale of E20 and by late 2008 E85 flexible fuel vehicles were introduced with only two gas stations selling E85.

Thailand is now converting some of the cassava stock hold by the government into fuel ethanol. Cassava-based ethanol productions are being ramped up to help manage the agricultural outputs of both cassava and sugar cane. With its abundant biomass resources, it is believed that the fuel ethanol program will be a new means of job creation in the rural areas while enhancing the balance sheet of fuel imports.

Australia

Main article: Ethanol fuel in Australia

Legislation in Australia imposes a 10% cap on the concentration of fuel ethanol blends. Blends of 90% unleaded petrol and 10% fuel ethanol are commonly referred to as E10. E10 is available through service stations operating under the BP, Caltex, Shell and United brands as well as those of a number of smaller independents. Not surprisingly, E10 is most widely available closer to the sources of production in Queensland and New South Wales where Sugar Cane is grown. E10 is most commonly blended with 91 RON “regular unleaded” fuel. There is a requirement that retailers label blends containing fuel ethanol on the dispenser.

Due to ethanol’s greater stability under pressure it is used by Shell in their 100 octane fuel. Similarly IFS add 10% ethanol to their 91 octane fuel, label it premium fuel and sell it more cheaply that regular unleaded. This is converse to the general practice of adding ethanol to a lesser quality fuel to bring its octane rating up to 91.

Some concern was raised over the use of ethanol blend fuels in petrol vehicles in 2003, yet manufacturers widely claimed that their vehicles were engined for such fuels. Since then there have been no reports of adverse affects to vehicles running on ethanol blended fuels.

Caribbean Basin

 United States fuel ethanol

imports by country

(2002-2007)

(Millions of U.S. liquid gallons)

Country

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

 Brazil

188.8

433.7

31.2

90.3

0

0

 Jamaica

75.2

66.8

36.3

36.6

39.3

29.0

 El Salvador

73.3

38.5

23.7

5.7

6.9

4.5

 Trinidad and Tobago

42.7

24.8

10.0

0

0

0

 Costa Rica

39.3

35.9

33.4

25.4

14.7

12.0

All countries in Central America, northern South America and the Caribbean are located in a tropical zone with suitable climate for growing sugar cane. In fact, most of these countries have a long tradition of growing sugar cane mainly for producing sugar and alcoholic beverages.

As a result of the guerilla movements in Central America, in 1983 the United States unilateral and temporarily approved the Caribbean Basin Initiative, allowing most countries in the region to benefit from several tariff and trade benefits. These benefits were made permanent in 1990 and more recently, these benefits were replaced by the Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act, approved in 2000, and the Dominican Republicentral America Free Trade Agreement that went to effect in 2008. All these agreements have allowed several countries in the region to export ethanol to the U.S free of tariffs. Until 2004, the countries that benefited the most were Jamaica and Costa Rica, but as the U.S. began demanding more fuel ethanol, the two countries increased their exports and two others began exporting. In 2007, Jamaica, El Salvador, Trinidad & Tobago and Costa Rica exported together to the U.S. a total of 230.5 million gallons of ethanol, representing 54.1% of U.S. fuel ethanol imports. Brasil began exporting ethanol to the U.S. in 2004 and exported 188.8 million gallons representing 44.3% of U.S. ethanol imports in 2007. The remaining imports that year came from Canada and China.

In March 2007, “ethanol diplomacy” was the focus of President George W. Bush’s Latin American tour, in which he and Brazil’s president, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, were seeking to promote the production and use of sugar cane based ethanol throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. The two countries also agreed to share technology and set international standards for biofuels. The Brazilian sugar cane technology transfer would allow several Central American, Caribbean and Andean countries to take advantage of their tariff-free trade agreements to increase or become exporters to the United States in the short-term. Also, in August 2007, Brazil’s President toured Mexico and several countries in Central America and the Caribbean to promote Brazilian ethanol technology. The ethanol alliance between the U.S. and Brazil generated some negative reactions from Venezuela’s President Hugo Chavez, and by then Cuba’s President, Fidel Castro, who wrote that “you will see how many people among the hungry masses of our planet will no longer consume corn.” “Or even worse,” he continued, “by offering financing to poor countries to produce ethanol from corn or any other kind of food, no tree will be left to defend humanity from climate change.”‘ Daniel Ortega, Nicaragua’s President, and one of the preferencial recipients of Brazilian technical aid also voiced critics to the Bush plan, but he vowed support for sugar cane based ethanol during Lula’s visit to Nicaragua.

Colombia

Colombia’s ethanol program began in 2002, based on a law approved in 2001 mandating a mix of 10% ethanol with regular gasoline, and the plan is to gradually reach a 25% blend in twenty-years. Sugar cane-based ethanol production began in 2005, when the law went into effect, and as local production was not enough to supply enough ethanol to the entire country’s fleet, the program was implemented only on cities with more than 500,000 inhabitants, such as Cali, Pereira, and the capital city of Bogot. All of the ethanol production comes from the Department of Valle del Cauca, Colombia’s traditional sugar cane region. Cassava is the second source of ethanol, and potatoes and castor oil are also being studied.

On March 2009 the Colombian government enacted a mandate to introduce E85 flexible-fuel cars. The executive decree applies to all gasoline-powered vehicles with engines smaller than 2.0 liters manufactured, imported, and commercialized in the country beginning in 2012, mandating that 60% of such vehicles must have flex-fuel engines capable of running with gasoline or E85, or any blend of both. By 2014 the mandatory quota is 80% and it will reach 100% by 2016. All vehicles with engines bigger than 2.0 liters must be E85 capable starting in 2013. The decree also mandates that by 2011 all gasoline stations must provide infrastructure to guarantee availability of E85 throughout the country. The mandatory introduction of E85 flex-fuels has been controversial.

Costa Rica

The government, based on the National Biofuel Program, established the mandatory use of all gasoline sold in Costa Rica with a blend of around 7.5% ethanol, starting in October 2008. The implementation phase follows a two year trial that took place in the provinces of Guanacaste and Puntarenas. The government expects to increase the percent of ethanol mixed with gasoline to 12% in the next 4 to 5 years. The Costa Rican government is pursuing this policy to lower the country’s dependency of foreign oil and to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases produced. The plan also calls for an increase in ethanol producing crops and tax breaks for flex-fuel vehicles and other alternative fuel vehicles. However, the introduction of the blend of 7% ethanol was postponed in September 2008 until the beginning of 2009. This delay was due to a request by the national association of fuel retailers to have more time available to adapt their fueling infrastructure. Additional delays caused another postponement, as fueling stations were not ready yet for handling ethanol fuel, and now implementation is expected for November 2009.

Despite the official postponement, during the months of February and March 2009, ethanol in different blends was sold without warning to consumers, which was cause for complains. The national distribution company, RECOPE, explained that it had already bought 50,000 barrels of ethanol stored and ready for distribution, so it decided to used as an oxygenate in substitution of MTBE. Nevertheless, retail sales of E7 continue uninterrupted in the trial regions of Guanacaste and the Central Pacific for three years now.

El Salvador

As a result of the cooperation agreement between the United States and Brazil, El Salvador was chosen in 2007 to lead a pilot experience to introduce state-of-the-art technology for growing sugar cane for production of ethanol fuel in Central America, as this technical bilateral cooperation is looking for helping Central American countries to reduce their dependence on foreign oil.

Comparison of Brazil and the U.S.

Evolution of the ethanol productivity per hectare of sugarcane planted in Brazil between 1975 and 2004. Source: Goldemberg (2008).

Brazil’s sugar cane-based industry is far more efficient than the U.S. corn-based industry. Brazilian distillers are able to produce ethanol for 22 cents per liter, compared with the 30 cents per liter for corn-based ethanol. Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of 600 mm (24 in) of annual rainfall. Sugarcane is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom, able to convert up to 2% of incident solar energy into biomass. Ethanol is produced by yeast fermentation of the sugar extracted from sugar cane.

Sugarcane production in the United States occurs in Florida, Louisiana, Hawaii, and Texas. In prime growing regions, such as Hawaii, sugarcane can produce 20 kg for each square meter exposed to the sun. The first three plants to produce sugar cane-based ethanol are expected to go online in Louisiana by mid 2009. Sugar mill plants in Lacassine, St. James and Bunkie were converted to sugar cane-based ethanol production using Colombian technology in order to make possible a profitable ethanol production. These three plants will produce 100 million gallons of ethanol within five years.

U.S. corn-derived ethanol costs 30% more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before being distilled into alcohol. Despite this cost differential in production, in contrast to Japan and Sweden, the U.S. does not import much of Brazilian ethanol because of U.S. trade barriers corresponding to a tariff of 54-cent per gallon a levy designed to offset the 45-cent per gallon blender’s federal tax credit that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin. One advantage U.S. corn-derived ethanol offers is the ability to return 1/3 of the feedstock back into the market as a replacement for the corn used in the form of Distillers Dried Grain.

Comparison of key characteristics between

the ethanol industries in the United States and Brazil

Characteristic

 Brazil

 U.S.

Units/comments

Feedstock

Sugar cane

Maize

Main cash crop for ethanol production, the US has less than 2% from other crops.

Total ethanol fuel production (2008)

6,472

9,000

Million U.S. liquid gallons

Total arable land

355

270(1)

Million hectares.

Total area used for ethanol crop (2006)

3.6 (1%)

10 (3.7%)

Million hectares (% total arable)

Productivity per hectare

6,800-8,000

3,800-4,000

Liters of ethanol per hectare. Brazil is 727 to 870 gal/acre (2006), US is 321 to 424 gal/acre (2003)

Energy balance (input energy productivity)

8.3 to 10.2

1.3 to 1.6

Ratio of the energy obtained from ethanol/energy expended in its production

Estimated GHG emissions reduction

86-90%(2)

10-30%(2)

% GHGs avoided by using ethanol instead of gasoline, using existing crop land (No ILUC).

Full life-cycle carbon intensity

73.40

105.10(3)

Grams of CO2 equivalent released per MJ of energy produced, includes indirect land use changes.

Estimated payback time for GHG emissions

17 years(4)

93 years(4)

Brazilian cerrado for sugarcane and US grassland for corn. Land use change scenarios by Fargione

Flexible-fuel vehicle fleet

9.3 million

8.0 million

Autos and light trucks only. Brazil as of December 2009 (E100 FFVs). U.S. as of early 2009 (E85 FFVs).

Ethanol fueling stations in the country

35,017 (100%)

2,113(1%)

As % of total gas stations in the country. Brazil by December 2007. U.S. by January 2010. (170,000 total.)

Ethanol’s share in the gasoline market

50%(5)

4%

As % of total consumption on a volumetric basis. Brazil as of April 2008. US as of December 2006.

Cost of production (USD/gallon)

0.83

1.14

2006/2007 for Brazil (22/liter), 2004 for U.S. (35/liter)

Government subsidy (in USD)

0 (6)

0.45/gallon

U.S. since 2009-01-01 as a tax credit. Brazilian ethanol production is no longer subsidized.(6)

Import tariffs (in USD)

20% (FOB)

0.54/gallon

Brazil does not import ethanol fuel since 2002. The U.S. does in a regular basis.

Notes: (1) Only contiguous U.S., excludes Alaska. (2) Assuming no land use change. (3) CARB estimate for Midwest corn ethanol. California’s gasoline carbon intensity is 95.86 blended with 10% ethanol. (4) Assuming direct land use change. (5) If diesel-powered vehicles are included and due to ethanol’s lower energy content by volume, bioethanol represented 16.9% of the road sector energy consumption in 2007. (6) Brazilian ethanol production is no longer subsidized, but gasoline is heavily taxed favoring ethanol fuel consumption (~54% tax). By the end of July 2008, when oil prices were close to its latest peak and the Brazilian Real exchange rate to the US dollar was close to its most recent minimum, the average gasoline retail price at the pump in Brazil was USD 6.00 per gallon, while the average US price was USD 3.98 per gallon. The latest gas retail price increase in Brazil occurred in late 2005, when oil price was at USD 60 per barrel.

Environment

Energy balance

Energy balance

Country

Type

Energy balance

 United States

Corn ethanol

1.3

 Brazil

Sugarcane ethanol

8

 Germany

Biodiesel

2.5

 United States

Cellulosic ethanol

236

experimental, not in commercial production

depending on production method

Main article: Ethanol fuel energy balance

All biomass goes through at least some of these steps: it needs to be grown, collected, dried, fermented, and burned. All of these steps require resources and an infrastructure. The total amount of energy input into the process compared to the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel is known as the energy balance (or “Net energy gain”). Figures compiled in a 2007 by National Geographic Magazine point to modest results for corn ethanol produced in the US: one unit of fossil-fuel energy is required to create 1.3 energy units from the resulting ethanol. The energy balance for sugarcane ethanol produced in Brazil is more favorable, 1:8. Energy balance estimates are not easily produced, thus numerous such reports have been generated that are contradictory. For instance, a separate survey reports that production of ethanol from sugarcane, which requires a tropical climate to grow productively, returns from 8 to 9 units of energy for each unit expended, as compared to corn which only returns about 1.34 units of fuel energy for each unit of energy expended.

Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is emitted during fermentation and combustion. However, this is canceled out by the greater uptake of carbon dioxide by the plants as they grow to produce the biomass. When compared to gasoline, depending on the production method, ethanol releases less greenhouse gases.

Air pollution

Compared with conventional unleaded gasoline, ethanol is a particulate-free burning fuel source that combusts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water and aldehydes. Gasoline produces 2.44 CO2 equivalent kg/l and ethanol 1.94 (this is 21% less CO2)[citation needed]. The Clean Air Act requires the addition of oxygenates to reduce carbon monoxide emissions in the United States. The additive MTBE is currently being phased out due to ground water contamination, hence ethanol becomes an attractive alternative additive. Current production methods include air pollution from the manufacturer of macronutrient fertilizers such as ammonia.

A study by atmospheric scientists at Stanford University found that E85 fuel would increase the risk of air pollution deaths relative to gasoline by 9% in Los Angeles, USA: a very large, urban, car-based metropolis that is a worst case scenario. Ozone levels are significantly increased, thereby increasing photochemical smog and aggravating medical problems such as asthma.

Manufacture

In 2002, monitoring the process of ethanol production from corn revealed that they released VOCs (volatile organic compounds) at a higher rate than had previously been disclosed. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) subsequently reached settlement with Archer Daniels Midland and Cargill, two of the largest producers of ethanol, to reduce emission of these VOCs. VOCs are produced when fermented corn mash is dried for sale as a supplement for livestock feed. Devices known as thermal oxidizers or catalytic oxidizers can be attached to the plants to burn off the hazardous gases.

Carbon dioxide

See also: Low-carbon fuel standard

UK government calculation of carbon intensity of corn bioethanol grown in the US and burnt in the UK.

Graph of UK figures for the carbon intensity of bioethanol and fossil fuels. This graph assumes that all bioethanols are burnt in their country of origin and that previously existing cropland is used to grow the feedstock.

The calculation of exactly how much carbon dioxide is produced in the manufacture of bioethanol is a complex and inexact process, and is highly dependent on the method by which the ethanol is produced and the assumptions made in the calculation. A calculation should include:

The cost of growing the feedstock

The cost of transporting the feedstock to the factory

The cost of processing the feedstock into bioethanol

Such a calculation may or may not consider the following effects:

The cost of the change in land use of the area where the fuel feedstock is grown.

The cost of transportation of the bioethanol from the factory to its point of use

The efficiency of the bioethanol compared with standard gasoline

The amount of Carbon Dioxide produced at the tail pipe.

The benefits due to the production of useful bi-products, such as cattle feed or electricity.

The graph on the right shows figures calculated by the UK government for the purposes of the Renewable transport fuel obligation.

The January 2006 Science article from UC Berkeley’s ERG, estimated reduction from corn ethanol in GHG to be 13% after reviewing a large number of studies. However, in a correction to that article released shortly after publication, they reduce the estimated value to 7.4%. A National Geographic Magazine overview article (2007) puts the figures at 22% less CO2 emissions in production and use for corn ethanol compared to gasoline and a 56% reduction for cane ethanol. Carmaker Ford reports a 70% reduction in CO2 emissions with bioethanol compared to petrol for one of their flexible-fuel vehicles.

An additional complication is that production requires tilling new soil which produces a one-off release of GHG that it can take decades or centuries of production reductions in GHG emissions to equalize. As an example, converting grass lands to corn production for ethanol takes about a century of annual savings to make up for the GHG released from the initial tilling.

Change in land use

See also: Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels

Large-scale farming is necessary to produce agricultural alcohol and this requires substantial amounts of cultivated land. University of Minnesota researchers report that if all corn grown in the U.S. were used to make ethanol it would displace 12% of current U.S. gasoline consumption. There are claims that land for ethanol production is acquired through deforestation, while others have observed that areas currently supporting forests are usually not suitable for growing crops. In any case, farming may involve a decline in soil fertility due to reduction of organic matter, a decrease in water availability and quality, an increase in the use of pesticides and fertilizers, and potential dislocation of local communities. However, new technology enables farmers and processors to increasingly produce the same output using less inputs.

Cellulosic ethanol production is a new approach which may alleviate land use and related concerns. Cellulosic ethanol can be produced from any plant material, potentially doubling yields, in an effort to minimize conflict between food needs vs. fuel needs. Instead of utilizing only the starch by-products from grinding wheat and other crops, cellulosic ethanol production maximizes the use of all plant materials, including gluten. This approach would have a smaller carbon footprint because the amount of energy-intensive fertilisers and fungicides remain the same for higher output of usable material. The technology for producing cellulosic ethanol is currently in the commercialization stage.

Many analysts suggest that, whichever ethanol fuel production strategy is used, fuel conservation efforts are also needed to make a large impact on reducing petroleum fuel use.

Using Ethanol for Electricity

Converting biomass to electricity for charging electric vehicles may be a more “climate-friendly” transportation option than using biomass to produce ethanol fuel, according to an analysis published in Science in May. “You make more efficient use of the land and more efficient use of the plant biomass by making electricity rather than ethanol,” said Elliott Campbell, an environmental scientist at the University of California at Merced, who led the research. “It’s another reason that, rather than race to liquid biofuels, we should consider other uses of bio-resources.”

For bioenergy to become a widespread climate solution, however, technological breakthroughs are necessary, analysts say. Researchers continue to search for more cost-effective developments in both cellulosic ethanol and advanced vehicle batteries.

Health Costs of Ethanol Emissions

For each billion ethanol-equivalent gallons of fuel produced and combusted in the US, the combined climate-change and health costs are $469 million for gasoline, $472952 million for corn ethanol depending on biorefinery heat source (natural gas, corn stover, or coal) and technology, but only $123208 million for cellulosic ethanol depending on feedstock (prairie biomass, Miscanthus, corn stover, or switchgrass).

Efficiency of common crops

As ethanol yields improve or different feedstocks are introduced, ethanol production may become more economically feasible in the US. Currently, research on improving ethanol yields from each unit of corn is underway using biotechnology. Also, as long as oil prices remain high, the economical use of other feedstocks, such as cellulose, become viable. By-products such as straw or wood chips can be converted to ethanol. Fast growing species like switchgrass can be grown on land not suitable for other cash crops and yield high levels of ethanol per unit area.

Crop

Annual yield (Liters/hectare)

Annual yield (US gal/acre)

Greenhouse-gas savings (% vs. petrol)(1)

Comments

Miscanthus

7300

780

3773

Low-input perennial grass. Ethanol production depends on development of cellulosic technology.

Switchgrass

31007600

330810

3773

Low-input perennial grass. Ethanol production depends on development of cellulosic technology. Breeding efforts underway to increase yields. Higher biomass production possible with mixed species of perennial grasses.

Poplar

37006000

400640

51100

Fast-growing tree. Ethanol production depends on development of cellulosic technology. Completion of genomic sequencing project will aid breeding efforts to increase yields.

Sugar cane

68008000

727870

8796

Long-season annual grass. Used as feedstock for most bioethanol produced in Brazil. Newer processing plants burn residues not used for ethanol to generate electricity. Only grows in tropical and subtropical climates.

Sweet sorghum

25007000

270750

No data

Low-input annual grass. Ethanol production possible using existing technology. Grows in tropical and temperate climates, but highest ethanol yield estimates assume multiple crops per year (only possible in tropical climates). Does not store well.

Corn

31004000

330424

1020

High-input annual grass. Used as feedstock for most bioethanol produced in USA. Only kernels can be processed using available technology; development of commercial cellulosic technology would allow stover to be used and…
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THE TASK-BASED SYLLABUS

A.  Introduction

At present, task-based syllabuses have not been widely implemented in language teaching. The problems are: the definition of tasks are so broad as to include almost anything that involves learners doing something, procedures for the design and selection of tasks remain unclear, and the excessive use of communicative tasks may encourage fluency at the expense of accuracy (Richard 2001:163).

 In Indonesia, related to the implementation of Curriculum 2006 (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan), task-based learning can be regarded as one particular approach to implementing the broader “communicative approach”. The aim of task-based learning is to develop student’s ability in communication.

The task-based syllabus is known based on work by Krahnke (1981,1982), Candlin and Murphy (1986), and Johnson (1982). The defining characteristic of task-based content is that it uses activities that the learners have to do for noninstructional purposes outside of the classroom as opportunities for language learning. Tasks are distinct from other activities to the degree that they have a noninstructional purpose and measurable outcome. Tasks are way of bringing the real world into the classroom (Krahnke,1987).

There have been a lot of researchers and theories in the last twenty years on the use of tasks in language teaching, particularly tasks which involve interaction between learners (e.g., Breen, 1987;  Prabhu, 1987; Nunan 1989).

As Willis (2004) points out, a number of crucial research findings change the course of EFL language teaching pedagogy in the 20th century. Due to the research findings, Finch (2006) concludes that as follows:

1. Language learning, even in a classroom setting, seems to develop independently of instruction,
2. Learners acquire language according to their own inbuilt internal syllabus regardless of the order in which they are exposed to particular structure and regardless of mother tongue influences,
3. Teaching does not and cannot determine the way that the learner’s language will develop (citing Skehan, 1996),
4. Learners do not necessary learn what teachers teach (citing Allwright, 1984),
5. Learner do not first acquire language as a structural system and then learn how to use this system I communication, but rather actually discover the system itself in the process of learning how to communicate (citing Ellis, 2003, p.14)

In addition to the findings, psycho-linguistic and socio-linguistic researchs have shown that:

1. Motivation is one of the key issues in language learning and that skills to motivate learners are crucial for language teachers (Dornyei, 2001, p. 1 citing in Finch, 2006),
2. Collaboration is more effective than competition as a means of promoting effective learning (Kohn, 1992 citing in Finch 2006)
3. Learners learn more in groups than individually, since cooperative social interaction produces new, elaborate, advanced psychological processes that are unavailable to the organism working in isolation (Vygotsky, 1989, p. 61 citing in Finch 2006).

This paper covers (1) the definition of task, (2) task components, (3) the characteristics of task-based syllabus (4) A framework for task-based course design, (5) Classifying tasks, (6) The thematic content of tasks, (7) Sequencing tasks, and (8) Constructing a task-based syllabus.

B.   The Content

1. The definition of task

Let us see some definition from some experts in task-based learning and teaching.

According to Long (1985):

A task is ‘a piece of work undertaken for oneself or others, freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a fair of shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, taking a hotel reservation, writing a cheque, finding a street destination, and helping someone across a road. In other words, by “task” is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. “Tasks” are the things people will tell you they do if you ask them and they are not applied linguists’.

According to Nunan (1989):

A communicative task is ‘a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right’.

And according to Bygate, Skehan, and Swain (2001):

‘A task is an activity which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an object’.

 1. Task Components

The definition of a language learning task requires specification of four components: the goals, the input (linguistic or otherwise), the activities derived from this input, and finally the roles implied for teacher and learners (Nunan 1989, p. 47).

Candlin (1987) cited in Nunan 1990:47) suggests that tasks should contain input, roles, settings, actions, monitoring, outcomes and feedback. Input refers to the data presented for learners to work on. Roles specify the relationship between participants in a task. Setting refers to the classroom and out-of-class arrangements entailed in the task. Actions are the procedures and sub-tasks to be performed by the learners. Outcomes are the goal of the task, and feedback refers to evaluation of the task.

Shavelson and Stern (1981) cited in Nunan 1990), who are concerned with general educational planning rather than TESOL planning in particular, suggest that task design should take into consideration the following elements:

-       Content – the subject matter to be taught

-       Materials – the things that learners can observe/manipulate

-       Activities – the things the learners and teacher will be doing during the lesson

-       Goals – the teacher’s general aim for the task (these are much more general and vague than objectives)

-       Students – their abilities, needs and interests are important

-       Social community – the class as a whole and it s sense of ‘groupness’

(Shavelson and stern 1981: 478)

 Wright (1987 in Nunan 1990) suggests that tasks need minimally contain just two elements. These are input data which may be provided by materials, teachers or learners and initiating question which instructs learners on what to do with the data.

 1. The characteristic of task-based syllabus

Looking at the characteristic of task-based syllabus, there are positive and negative characteristic. Positive characteristic: (1) task-based instruction is potentially very powerful and widely applicable, (2) suitable for learners of all ages and backgrounds, (3) addresses the crucial problem-directly, by using active and real tasks as learning activities, (4) ability to perform the instructional task is equivalent to the ability to use the language, so functional ability should be a natural outcome of the instructional experience, (5) task-based learning can be very effective when the learners are engaged in relatively similar out-of-class activities (social or academic), (6) task-based learning can be especially useful for learners who are not accustomed to more traditional type of  classroom learning or who need to learn cognitive, cultural, and life skills along with the language.

While the negative characteristics are: (1) problems can easily arise with teachers, the instructional setting, or the students, (2) task-based learning requires resources beyond the text books, (3) because TBL is not what many students expected and want from a language, they may resist or object to this type of instruction, (4) evaluation of TBL can be difficult, however, it is easy to measure the language proficiency.

1. A framework for task-based course design

The construction of a task-based syllabus requires a specification of the tasks to be included in the syllabus. To achieve this it is helpful to classify tasks in terms of their type, to determine their thematic content and then to sequence them using appropriate criteria for grading their level of difficulty for the learner. This will suffice in the preparation of a task-based syllabus consisting entirely of linguistically unfocused tasks. However, an optional element in the framework is a specification of the features of language, i.e. the forms and functions of language, to be incorporated into the design of the syllabus.  

1. Classifying tasks

Task classification is important for a number of reasons. First, it provides a basis for ensuring variety; syllabus designer can refer to the classification to ensure that they incorporate a range of task types into the course. Second, it can be used to identify the task types that match the specific needs or preferences of particular groups of learners. Third, it affords teachers a framework for experimenting with tasks in their classroom; they can systematically try out the different types of tasks to discover which tasks work for their students.

Pedagogic classification

Willis (1996) offers a somewhat different pedagogic classification of tasks based on an analysis of the kinds of tasks commonly found in text book materials. The types reflect the kind of operations learners are required to carry out in performing tasks:

• Listing, i.e. where the completed outcome is a list
• Ordering and sorting, i.e. tasks that involve sequencing, ranking, categorizing or classifying items.
• Comparing, i.e. tasks that involve finding differences or similarities in information.
• Problem-solving, i.e. tasks that demand intellectual activity as in puzzles or logic problems.
• Sharing personal experiences, i.e. tasks that allow learners to talk freely about themselves and share experiences.
• Creative tasks, i.e. projects, often involving several stages that can incorporate the various types of tasks above and can include the need to carry out some research.

Willis acknowledges that this classification is not exhaustive but argues that it will help to generate a variety of actual tasks.

 Rhetorical classification

A rhetorical classification of tasks draws on theories of rhetoric that distinguish different discourse domain in terms of their structure and linguistic properties-narrative, instruction, description, reports, etc. Such a classification often underlies language courses for academic purposes (for example, Arnaudet 1984) and is often linked to the specific language functions that figure in academic written discourse, for example, definitions, classifications, giving examples. One advantage of adopting a rhetorical classification is that discourse domain has been shown to be a factor that influences both the negotiation of meaning and the quality of learner production. Another advantage is that it lends itself to the design of specific purpose courses, as learners’ needs can often be readily specified in terms of the specific domains they need to master.

An alternative, more theoretically satisfying approach to classifying tasks rhetorically is to utilize the concept of genre, defined by Swales (1990 in Ellis 2003:212) as ‘a class of communicative events, the members of which share some set of communicative purposes’. Exemplars of a given genre not just a given structure and style but a communicative purpose. However, they can be more or less prototypical of genre. Examples of genres are recipes, political speeches, job application letters, good/bad news, medical consultations and radio-telephonic flight control messages. Swales shows how genre analysis can be used effectively to describe the types of discourse found in academic settings and provides an extended account of one such genre-the research article. He suggests that the ideal pedagogic vehicle for teaching genres is ‘task’.

 Cognitive classification

A cognitive approach to classifying tasks is based the kind of cognitive operations different types of tasks involve. Prabhu (1982) distinguishes three general types of tasks based on the kind of cognitive activity involved:

• Information-gap activity involves ‘a transfer of given information from one person to another-or from one form to another, or from one place to another-generally calling for the encoding or decoding of information from or into language.
• Reasoning-gap activity involves ‘driving some new information from given information through process of inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a perception of relationships or patterns’.
• Opening-gap activity involves ‘identifying and articulating a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in response to a given situation’.

Psycholinguistic classification

A psycholinguistic classification of tasks sets out to establish a typology of tasks in relation to their potential for language learning. The system is ‘psycholinguistic’ in the sense that is based on interactional categories that have been shown to affect the opportunities learners have to comprehend input, obtain feedback, and to modify their own output. The categories are:

• Interactant relationship: this concerns who holds the information to be exchanged and who requests it and supplies it in order to achieve the task goals. It relates to the distinction between one-way and two-way tasks. This category is derived from research that indicates that when there is a mutual relationship of request and suppliance,  negotiation, of meaning is more likely to occur.
• Interaction requirement: this concerns whether the task requires participants to request and supply information or whether this is optional.
• Goal orientation: this concerns whether the task requires the participants to agree on a single outcome or allows them to disagree.
• Outcome options: this refers to the scope of the task outcomes available to the participants in meeting the task goals.

 A General framework

From the above account of task classification, it is clear that there is currently no accepted single typology of tasks nor is there any consensus regarding the choice of organizing principle for constructing such a typology. At best then, task classification can be informed by a general framework based on a number of key dimensions of tasks. The following figure is an attempt at such a general framework. It draws on rhetorical, cognitive, and psycholinguistic typologies described above.

The thematic content of tasks

In Estaire and Zanon’s (1994) framework for developing a task-based unit of work, for example, ‘select theme or interest area’ is the starting point. Similarly, a key element in the preparation of the ‘final task’ of a unit is determining the ‘thematic aspects’ of the task.

The choice of theme will depend to a considerable extent on whether the pedagogic purpose of the task-based course is general proficiency or some specific use of the L2. In the case of the former, the guiding principles in the selection of content for task will be (1) topic familiarity and (2) intrinsic interest (3) topic relevancy by predicting the general situations that learners may later find themselves in.

Estaire and Zanon (1994) provide a ‘theme generator’. This is organized in terms of thematic areas that are close or remote to the learner. Estaire and Zanon offer a number of specific topics for each thematic area based on suggestions made by teachers they have worked with. For example, topics relating to ‘students’ include ‘birthdays’, ‘eating habits’, and ‘how the body works’. Of course, the themes/topics chosen for a particular group of learners will depend on both the students’ level of proficiency, i.e. close topics being more suitable for beginner learners and remote topics for more advance learners, and also on local cultural values and interests.

2. Sequencing tasks

The design of a syllabus requires the content be sequenced so as to facilitate maximum learning. In effect, this requires determining the complexity of individual tasks so that tasks can be matched to learners’ level of development.

Sequencing tasks faces several problems in particular grading criteria to be used. Widdowson (1990) notes that we do not possesses a sufficiently well-defined model of cognitive complexity to establish such criteria and concludes that task-based syllabuses thus face exactly the same problem as linguistic syllabuses-they cannot be modeled on the sequence of language acquisition.

There are three sets of factors which learners are able to perform different tasks.  First, task complexity, as Robinson (2001: 29) comments:

Task complexity is the result of the attentional memory, reasoning, and other information processing demands imposed by the structure of the task on the language learner. These differences in information processing demands, resulting from design characteristics, are relatively fixed and invariant.

Task complexity can account for intra-learner variability, i.e. the variability evident when the same learner performs different tasks.

Second, task difficulty, Robinson identifies factors relating to learners as individuals, which can influence how easy or difficult a particular task is for different participants. Task difficulty accounts for inter-learner variability. And finally, the methodological procedures used to teach a task. These procedures can increase or ease the processing burden placed on the learner. They include the use of pre-task activity, for example, pre teaching the vocabulary needed to perform the task or carrying out a task similar to the main task with the assistance of the teacher, and planning time, i.e. giving students the opportunity to plan before they undertake task.

Factors relating to input

 Input medium

With regard to input medium, information that is presented in written or pictorial form, which can be decoded in the learner’s own time, is likely to be easier to process than information that is provided orally, which requires online decoding. However, the validity of this claim will depend on the learner’s level of proficiency in the L2. Prabhu (1987 in Ellis 2003: 222) notes that the students in the Communicational Teaching Project (beginner learners in Indian secondary schools) found tasks with an oral input easier than tasks presented in writing. It can also be surmised that pictorial input will be easier than verbal input as it makes no demands on the learners’ linguistic resources. Tasks involving pictures and diagrams frequently figure in courses designed for learners of limited proficiency (for example, Prabhu 1987).

Code complexity

The code complexity of the input, i.e. its lexical and syntactical complexity, is also likely to influence the learner’s ability to comprehend. Input texts with high frequency vocabulary and a low level of subordination are easier  to understand than texts with low frequency vocabulary and complex sentence structure.

Cognitive complexity

Cognitive complexity is as important as code complexity. This concerns the cognitive demands of processing the informational content of the input material. Brown et al. (1984) suggest that it involves two dimensions. First, there is the information type. This can be ‘static’ task, i.e. the information contains changing events and activities as in a video story, or ‘abstract’, i.e. tasks that present information that has to be used to form an opinion or justify a position. The second dimension referred to by Brown et al. concerns the amount of information to be processed-the number of different elements or relationships involved.

Context dependency

Robinson (1995) bases his claim that context-free input is more complex on the results of L1 and L2 studies that show ‘there and then’ reference to be developmentally later. Nunan (1989) also notes that texts supported by photographs, drawings, tables, and graphs are easier to understand.

Familiarity of information

‘familiarity of information’ relates to ‘task difficulty’ as much as to ‘task complexity’, as it concerns the relationship between the theme of the task and individual learner’s world knowledge. Prabhu (1987: 88 in Ellis 2003: 223) comments that ‘learners’ knowledge of the world can make tasks more or less difficult for them, depending on whether they are more or less familiar with purposes and constraints of the kind involved in the tasks’.

Factors relating to task conditions

Condition influencing the negotiation of meaning

Markee (1997: 98 in Ellis 2003: 224) notes that ‘some tasks are psycholinguistically more difficult to complete than others’. He bases this claims that indicates that one-way tasks promote less negotiation of meaning than two-way tasks.

Task demands

One condition that has received some attention is task demands, specifically whether the task imposes a single or a dual demand.

Discourse mode

Skehan (2001) proposes that dialogic tasks promote greater accuracy and complexity and monologic tasks greater fluency.

Factors relating to the process of performing a task

Reasoning needed

Of the three types of tasks that Prabhu (1987) describes that information-gap tasks proved the easiest and opinion-gap tasks the most difficult, with reasoning-gap tasks intermediate.  In the case of reasoning tasks, Prabhu identifies the reasoning needed as a key factor determining complexity:

The ‘distance’ between the information provided and the information arrived at as outcome, i.e. the number of steps involved in the deduction, inference, or calculation, is a measure of relative difficulty of tasks.

Factors relating to task outcomes

Medium of the outcome

The medium of outcome is a potential factor influencing task complexity. Pictorial and written products may prove easier than oral products, especially if the latter involve  a presentation of some kind. This will depend on the difficulty individual learners experience with the different media.

The scope of the outcome

There is no literature on the relative complexity of tasks with closed and open outcomes. Intuitively, tasks with closed outcomes will be easier in that the participants know there is a ‘right’ answer and thus can direct their efforts more purposefully, and perhaps more economically.

The discourse domain of the outcome

The degree of complexity of these discourse domains depend on the level of detail required in the product. Instructions, for example, can be more or less complex depending on the number and content of the specific directives.

Complexity of the outcome

Skehan (2001: 173) identifies complexity of outcome as an important factor in decision making tasks. He comments:

Some tasks require only straightforward outcomes, in which a simple decision has to be made. Others require multi-faceted judgements, in which the case or position a learners argues during a task can only be effective if it anticipates other possible outcomes, and other learners contributions.

 The nature of the outcome impacts on the task performance, affecting the complexity of arguments that need to be made.

3. Constructing a task-based syllabus

The planning the task-based syllabus needs the following procedures:

1. The starting points is the determination of the goal(s) of the course in terms of its pedagogic focus (general or specific purpose), skill focus (listening, speaking, reading, writing, learner training) and language focus (unfocused or focused)
2. The designer then needs to make a broad choice of task types and specify the particular themes the tasks will deal with. The result of this stage is a list of tasks organized by theme and specified in terms of the general activity that the learners will be required to undertake.
3. The third step would be to specify the nature of the tasks to be used in detail by selecting options relating to input, conditions, process, and outcomes. The selection  would need to be motivated both by a consideration of the psycholinguistic value of the different options and by practical considerations  relating to the specific teaching context.
4. Finally, the tasks need to be sequenced.

C.   Some related information from other resources

The followings are some research of the implementations of task-based.

Carless, D.R (2003), “Factors in the implementation of task-based teaching in primary schools”. His qualitative case study explains that within the Asia Pasific region, a number of attempts to introduce communicative or task-based approaches have often proven problematic, in South Korea (Li, 1998); in  Hong Kong (Carless, 1999; Evans, 1996); in Japan (Browne and Wada, 1998; Gorsuch, 2001); in China (Hui, 1997; Liao, 2000); in Vietnam (Ellis, 1996; Kramsch and Sulivan, 1996); and Indonesia (Tomlinson, 1990).

Factors in implementation of task-based teachings are teachers’ understandings of tasks, their attitudes, the classroom time available for task-based teaching, teacher preparation  of resources, influence of textbook and topics, and the language proficiency of pupils.

Bruton, A. (2006) “Description or Prescription for Task-Based Instruction? A Reply to Littlewood”. Bruton analyzed the Lttlewood (2004) proposal on the task-based approach. Liitlewood offers two dimensions, task involvement and task focus, on which to place activities in the classroom activities.

Finch, A. (2006) “Task-based supplementation: Achieving high school textbook goals through form-focused interaction”. The research showed that meaningful learning could occur, and could be perceived (by the students) to occur. The interactive format of the task-based supplementary activities, students became involved in the learning process, and benefited from an improved awareness of what they were learning and why they were learning it.

Cheng-jun W. (2006) “”Designing Communicative Task for College English Course”. Cheng-jun concluded that the communicative tasks design has been proved to be effective in teaching a foreign language in promoting the learners competence in using the language to do things they need to do. Communicative tasks design offers a change from the traditional teaching routines through which many learners have previously failed to communicative.

D.  Conclusion

Task-based syllabus is a set of planning or set of instructional materials based the aims that have been established for a language program. Task-based syllabus can be used in teaching or learning the communicative purposes. It is organized around tasks that students will complete in the target language. A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, or reading a set of instructions and assembling a toy (Richard 2001: 161).

A task-based syllabus, however, is one based on tasks that have been specially designed to facilitate second language learning and one in each tasks or activities are the basic unit of syllabus design. A number of second language acquisition theorists have proposed tasks as a basis for syllabus planning. Long and Crookes (1991, 43 in Richard 2001) claim that tasks: “provide a vehicle for the presentation of appropriate target language samples to learners – input which they will inevitably reshape via application of general cognitive processing capacities – and for the delivery of comprehension and production opportunities of negotiable difficulty.”

References:

 Khranke, K. 1987 Approaches to Syllabus Design for Foreign Language Teaching, New Jersy, USA.: Prentice Hall, Inc,

Nunan, D. (1989) Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom, Cambridge:  Cambridg University Press.

Richard, J.C. 2001. Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge Language Education.

Allen, E.D. andValette, R.M. 1972. Classroom Techniques: Foreign Languages and English as a Second Language, New York:  Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.

Richard, J.C. and Renandya, W.A. 2002. Methodology in Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nunan, D. 1988. The Learner-Centered  Curriculum; A study in second language teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richard, J.C. 2001. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ellis, R. 1997. Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kumpulan permendiknas tentang SNP dan panduan KTSP, 2008.

GBPP Kurikulum 1994, Depdiknas, Jakarta.

About the Author

The writer is an English teacher of high school in Batam , Indonesia. (Teacher of SMAN 1 Batam)- Indonesia

Master admissions requirments. Please help.?

I have to write a letter to the school along with my application for admissions. A statement of purpose addressing the motivations to attain a graduate diploma and the intentions to apply the dipolma to a specific set of purposes. Help give me some pointers. Thanks

Would be helpful to know what type of degree you are applying for, what are your future goals, etc.

The WORD for May 25th, 2009

Signs, Signals and Symptoms of Stress

INTRODUCTION

“The word stress is defined by the Oxford Dictionary as a state of affair involving demand on physical or mental energy”.

Stress arises as a result of the gap between the expectations and realities. It also arises due to the unforeseen or unfavorable events arising out of external forces and factors. It also occurs because of the inability of an individual to cope up with the sudden shock, failures and frustrations. Overall stress can be defined as the physical, physiological and psychologically related events and aspects that cause inconvenience to an individual.

TYPES:

Although there are many types of stress, basically there are three kinds of stress that can be classified as physical stress, emotional stress and psychological stress. In the case of physical stress the people get back aches, body pains, muscle aches, high blood pressure, excessive sweating etc., The stress is felt and seen physically. In the case of emotional stress one gets angry and anxiety. There is an element of depression seen in this scenario. It happens usually where one hears the death of loved ones and they are faced with sudden failures or met with illness. Thirdly in the case of psychological stress, there is a possibility for developing phobias, developing eating disorders, going away from the main stream of the society etc.,

There is another school of thought that talks about distress and eustress. If there is negative effect arising out of a stress then it is said to be distress and if there is positive outcome arising out of a stress then it is called eustress. Now days there is a technical term known as E-stress or techno stress which arises out of growing technological changes and pressures. People are comfortable in usage of mobile phones, laptops, game stations, play stations etc., and excessive usage is leading to higher stress levels which is known as techno stress. Stress is the initial stage and when it goes unchecked it turns out to be a burn out. While the stress can be easily averted and overcome the ultimate stage of burn out is very difficult to overcome. It requires lot of care, attention and medication to bring back from the brink of burn out.

CAUSES OF STRESS:

Improper time management leads to accumulation of the tasks resulting into backlogs. When work gets piled up it becomes very difficult to manage the same resulting into stress levels. Due to the cut throat competition there is a strong need to deliver the best. The clients and customers expect the best from the companies. If the companies fail to satisfy their clients they stand to lose their business to their competitors. As a result, the corporate world is getting highly competitive and thereby passing on the pressure to the employees. Employees too find it very difficult to cope up with the growing demands of their employers.

When the employees are underpaid they get dejected and frustrated. The work is more and the salary is less. They do not get the mood to perform as they are not satisfied monetarily. At times people set unrealistic and unachievable targets and goals.

Procrastination is the thief of the time. People tend to postpone their routine tasks for the other day and over a period of time the work gets piled up resulting into high stress levels. Due to organizational politics when there is no recognition towards their contribution, people do not get motivated to work thus resulting into stress. Lack of clarity of mind or approach on the part of the individual makes the things confused and complicated. Often people get confronted with too may commitments and appointments thereby not knowing what to do.

SIGNS, SIGNALS AND SYMPTOMS OF STRESS:

Stress has both positive and negative effects and the signs, signals and symptoms can be found in various ways. First let us look at the negative symptoms of stress.

Three things are essential for a healthy body and mind. They are sound sleep, free motion and good appetite. Sound sleep is an ideal indication of effective internal nervous system. Free motion and good appetite is the indication of healthy internal body system. If these three elements function efficiently and effectively then we can say that the overall health of an individual is excellent. Unfortunately the stress is visible by way of cardiac problems, ulcers, head aches, fatigue etc., Increased stress may often lead to nervous break down. The affected and inflicted people are prone to anger and anxiety. There will be abnormal behavioral patterns. They keep worried continuously about the problems and they lose focus and concentration. They tend to make more mistakes due to lack of concentration.

It is a case of flight or fight scenario. People who have mental stamina will fight the stress tooth and nail and become excellent performers and those who can not fight but develop the attitude to flight will succumb to depression which is worse than the fight position.

The distressed people develop irritation, and absentmindedness. They develop indigestion, irritable bowel syndrome, asthma, cancer, diabetes etc., Such people lose interest in sex as they are mentally preoccupied with worries and tensions. In extreme cases people develop suicidal tendencies and commit suicide.

At the corporate world there is growing attrition rate and stress is the major cause for the same. If all these are the grey areas of stress there is a silver lining too to stress that is positive result of stress which is known as eustress.

Life would be dull without some stress. Stress streamlines our thinking activity and it removes the clutter and cobwebs from our mind. It energizes the people to perform better. It forces, enforces and encourages us to touch our upper limits. It unlocks our hidden potential. It triggers passion and uncorks the hidden dormant talents. Jack Welch, former CEO of GE laid stress on stretch goals where people perform much better when they are forced to stretch beyond their capabilities. Setting stretch goals sparks the hidden potential. Analysts and experts have commented that moderate stress is essential for survival, growth and success.

TIPS TO TACKLE STRESS:

“Nothing gives one person so much advantage over another as to remain always cool and unruffled under all circumstances”, Thomas Jefferson.

• The first and foremost thing to note that the inflicted individual should realize that he has stress. After realizing the same then he should identify the reasons behind it.

• Don’t take too many tasks at a time. Multitasking is the buzzword in the business world but it should not result into tensions and health hazards.

• When tasks are assigned you should know what is priority and posteriority. The tasks that are urgent and important are to be classified under priority and the tasks that are insignificant and not of urgency can be categorized as posteriority. Prioritization depends on the importance and significance of the given task. If there is an effective time management of tasks, the tensions can be lowered to a great extent.

• Going for regular exercises energizes the entire body and relieves the stress. Exercises equip you with fresh energy and enthusiasm. Mind also gets refreshed with positive thoughts and there will be a strong feeling of staying on the top of the world.

• You can also go for regular walking, jogging or cycling. Swimming is the best exercise as the entire body gets worked out as the body floats in the water. All parts of the body are subject to physical activity and there is all-round exercise for the body.

• You can employ laughter therapy as laughing decreases the tensions. Now days in many urban areas people gather in a place and keep laughing to beat the stress.

• Doing meditation and yoga brings fresh energies and powers to your mind and body. During meditation you stop your entire thinking and stay calm mentally from other thoughts. When you give rest to your mind for sometime by meditation and yoga, you tend to draw more powers coupled with fresh energies.

• Don’t try to execute entire tasks by yourself. Try to delegate the routine and less important tasks to your subordinates for execution.

• Never do any activity at a stretch. Break the activity into small activities so as to sustain enthusiasm towards it as well as minimizing the stress levels.

• If you have worked continuously for long hours, give a break and relax yourself. Whenever you achieved something reward yourself so as to motivate yourself. Sleep well as you provide rest to your mind and body. When you wake up, you can start the day with fresh energy.

• Never try to change the things which are beyond your control. Learn to live with your limitations. Attempting to change over what can not be changed invites lot of stress and fatigue. Dr.Rosch aptly suggested, “Change what you can and stop fretting over what you can’t”.

• Go for regular sex as it decreases the tensions and recharges your body with refilled energy and enthusiasm.

• Pursue your forgotten or neglected hobby as it diverts your attention from your routine tasks and engages in your beloved creative pursuits.

• Never look back with regret as past can’t be altered and don’t be overly worried about the future as future can’t be predicted. What you have now is only the present and learn to lead the present life pleasantly.

• Don’t have negative approach towards the people who troubled you in the past. Cultivate the attitude to forgive and forget the unpleasant events in life. Create a positive and healthy friend circle that in turn helps you to keep you on the right track whenever you go awry. Ventilate your grievances, emotions and feelings to your trusted friends as it decreases the hidden tensions.

• Don’t accept too much of work load and learn to say ‘No’ to excessive work.

• Take meals regularly at a specified time and break the meal to more number of times for better digestion. Drink lot of water whenever you get tense.

• Go for deep breathing. Inhale and exhale by holding the breath for a few seconds more as it sends fresh oxygen to your mind.

• Maintain proper work life balance. Let your professional life not encroach your personal life and vice versa.

• Avoid smoking, drinking and overeating. Excessive stress leads to overeating and it leads to obesity.

• Don’t commit too much. Commit less but perform more but not vice versa.

• Go for regular body massages as it soothes the body. Maria Hernandez – Reif recommends simply massaging the palm of one hand by making a circular motion with the thumb of the other.

• Put it on a piece of paper what actually stresses you. If you diagnose properly then the appropriate solution can be found out.

• Don’t be oversensitive to stress. Cancel your flight and call for a fight against stress.

• Daily sit quietly for 10 to 15 minutes in a peaceful place.

• Take hot water bath if you feel stressed out.

• Say no to junk foods and say yes to fruits and vegetables.

• Spend sometime with small children and play with kids for sometime.

• Go for a weekend holiday as it breaks the routine chain of activities.

• Listen to soft and soothing music.

• Make a silent prayer for a few minutes every day.

• Execute the tasks timely.

• Allow pleasant and peaceful thoughts into your mind.

• Some companies are conducting meditation and yoga classes during the working hours as stress is taking its toll. Such activities have paid rich dividends to the companies.

• Recall your past achievement as it will trigger positive vibrations.

CONCLUSION:

“If you can’t stand the heat, get out of the kitchen”, goes the old saying.

Realize that stress is a menace. Try to avoid the same by taking various measures. If found inevitable due to the demand from the work place tackle the same by taking the remedial action immediately before the stress becomes a burn out.

Life is very short and live the life in a pleasant and pleasurable way. Do not get into the competitive rat race and damage your health. Try to balance clearly amongst your personal, professional and social life. Allocate your precious time, money and energy in such a way that you can attain optimum results in all areas of your life.

About the Author

(The author, Prof. M.S.Rao, is working as an Academic Counselor in Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Open University, India. He delivers ‘Guest Lectures’ upon request. He talks over radio and is a professional Writer and Trainer in soft skills, personality development, motivation, leadership and equity investments. Number of articles has been published in various global websites, magazines and journals. He can be reached at emails: profmsr7@yahoo.com, profmsr7@gmail.com).

H.No: 6-18-188, New NGO’s Colony, Nizamabad-503002, INDIA Cell: +91-9949710632

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motivations of consumer misbehavior

Massive motivation to gain muscle mass!

You can have the perfect workout program, the perfect diet, and the best personal trainer in the industry – but nothing happens if you don’t show up. So what’s the trick? How do you keep yourself motivated enough to keep showing up at the gym to gain muscle mass?

The interesting thing is that when it comes to gaining muscle mass, the secret to motivation is no different than in any other endeavor in your life. Not everything in our lives will be exciting, especially when it is something long term. There usually comes a point in time when it becomes very difficult to “show up”.

To understand what it takes for you to be motivate I think you need to look back at events in your life where maybe the odds were against you but somehow you managed to make something happen. Now it doesn’t have to be something major, just a case where you had it made up in your mind that it was going to happen and it did.

Let me give you an example. Have you ever craved food from a specific restaurant so much that it completely consumed your thoughts all day, if not most if it? And later that day, when it finally came time to eat, you and your friend or relative tried to decide what or where to eat and you immediately came up with the idea to go out to get the delicious food you had been drooling over. However, they weren’t as excited about the place or food as you were and tried to persuade you to go somewhere else. But your desire for that food was so strong you convinced them to go by offering to pay for their food or gas, or anything else for that matter.

Has that ever happened to you? What came over you when this happened? What was it that made you push so hard to get what you wanted? Most importantly, how can you create this desire inside yourself to show up to the gym?

It’s quite simple really. You see, in the beginning you simply had an idea. The idea was to get a specific meal at a specific place. Throughout the day you continued to think about that idea until eventually it became a strong emotional desire. The more you thought about it, the more emotional it became until it consumed your thoughts and behavior. At that point you were going to do whatever it took to get that meal.

So let’s apply that process to help you gain muscle mass. Determine why you want to build muscle mass. What is it that you are trying to achieve? Now “to have a nice body” isn’t enough. Dig deeper. Why do you want a nice body? What will having a nice body do for you? The deeper you dig, the closer you get to that emotional desire that will push you every day. Think about it every day; especially when you are struggling to get to the gym.

Having a clear picture of what it is you ultimately are trying to achieve will not only give you goals, but major motivation. Motivation can be the difference between showing up every day and gaining that muscle mass your looking for or quitting just a tad too early.

About the Author

Jim Clements is the President and CEO of Simply Ripped, LLC, a company dedicated to providing you with the information and tools necessary to build muscle, burn fat, and maximize your muscle definition. To learn how to build, burn and sculpt any body type go to: http://www.simplyripped.com

Does the western media have more to gain if the public is under the influence of organized religion?

The driving force behind western media is consumerism and the money generated by advertising products, services and merchandise. So what I’m really asking here is; does organized religion make people better consumers? If so, then this would be strong motivation for the western media to do all it can to ensure the public stays well and truly under the influence of organized religion, don’t you think so?

you have a point, the media does depend on some religion, but then again, America wouldn’t be a representation of freedom if it were that simple. It’s more complicated than meets the eye due to the fact that God’s way’s are unknown to man, such as yourself…so stay out of that field man…